Flemish method of oil painting. “Dead layer” of Flemish painting

Secrets of the old masters

Old oil painting techniques

Flemish writing method oil paints

The Flemish method of painting with oil paints basically boiled down to the following: a drawing from the so-called cardboard (a separately executed drawing on paper) was transferred onto a white, smoothly sanded primer. Then the drawing was outlined and shaded with transparent brown paint(tempera or oil). According to Cennino Cennini, even in this form the paintings looked like perfect works. This technique in its further development changed. The surface prepared for painting was covered with a layer of oil varnish mixed with brown paint, through which the shaded drawing was visible. The pictorial work ended with transparent or translucent glazes or half-body (half-covering), in one step, writing. The brown preparation was left to show through in the shadows. Sometimes they painted on the brown preparation with so-called dead paints (gray-blue, gray-greenish), finishing the work with glazes. The Flemish painting method can be easily traced in many of Rubens' works, especially in his studies and sketches, e.g. triumphal arch“The Apotheosis of Duchess Isabella”

To preserve the beauty of blue paints in oil painting(blue pigments rubbed in oil change their tone), recorded blue paints the places were sprinkled (over the not completely dry layer) with ultramarine or smalt powder, and then these places were covered with a layer of glue and varnish. Oil paintings sometimes glazed with watercolors; To do this, their surface was first wiped with garlic juice.

Italian method of painting with oil paints

The Italians modified the Flemish method, creating a distinctive Italian way of writing. Instead of white primer, the Italians made colored primer; or the white primer was completely covered with some kind of transparent paint. They drew on the gray ground1 with chalk or charcoal (without resorting to cardboard). The drawing was outlined with brown glue paint, which was also used to lay out the shadows and paint the dark draperies. Then they covered the entire surface with layers of glue and varnish, after which they painted with oil paints, starting with laying out the highlights with whitewash. After this, the dried bleach preparation was used to paint in corpus in local colors; Gray soil was left in partial shade. The painting was completed with glazes.

Later they began to use dark gray primers, performing underpainting with two paints - white and black. Even later, brown, red-brown and even red soils were used. The Italian method of painting was then adopted by some Flemish and Dutch masters(Terborkh, 1617-1681; Metsu, 1629-1667 and others).

Examples of the use of Italian and Flemish methods.

Titian initially painted on white grounds, then switched to colored ones (brown, red, and finally neutral), using impasto underpaintings, which he made in grisaille2. In Titian's method, significant specific gravity acquired the letter at one time, in one go, without subsequent glazing (the Italian name for this method is alia prima). Rubens mainly worked according to the Flemish method, greatly simplifying the brown wash. He completely covered a white canvas with light brown paint and laid out shadows with the same paint, painted on top with grisaille, then with local tones, or, bypassing the grisaille, painted alia prima. Sometimes Rubens painted in local lighter colors over a brown background and finished painting work glazes. The following, very fair and instructive statement is attributed to Rubens: “Begin to paint your shadows lightly, avoiding introducing into them even an insignificant amount of white: white is the poison of painting and can only be introduced in highlights. Once whitewash disrupts the transparency, golden tone and warmth of your shadows, your painting will no longer be light, but will become heavy and gray. The situation is completely different with regard to lights. Here the paints can be applied body-wise as needed, but it is necessary, however, to keep the tones pure. This is achieved by placing each tone in its place, one next to the other, so that with a slight movement of the brush you can shade them without, however, disturbing the colors themselves. You can then go through such painting with decisive final blows, which are so characteristic of great masters.”

The Flemish master Van Dyck (1599-1641) preferred corpus painting. Rembrandt most often painted on gray ground, working out the forms with transparent brown paint very actively (darkly), and also used glazes. Rubens applied strokes of different colors one next to the other, and Rembrandt overlapped some strokes with others.

A technique similar to the Flemish or Italian - on white or colored soils using impasto masonry and glaze - was widely used until mid-19th century. The Russian artist F. M. Matveev (1758-1826) painted on brown ground with underpainting done in grayish tones. V. L. Borovikovsky (1757-1825) underpainted grisaille on a gray ground. K. P. Bryullov also often used gray and other colored primers, and underpainted with grisaille. In the second half of the 19th century, this technique was abandoned and forgotten. Artists began to paint without the strict system of the old masters, thereby narrowing their technical capabilities.

Professor D.I. Kiplik, speaking about the importance of the color of the primer, notes: Painting with wide, flat light and intense colors (such as the works of Roger van der Weyden, Rubens, etc.) requires a white primer; painting, in which deep shadows predominate, uses a dark primer (Caravaggio, Velasquez, etc.).” “A light primer imparts warmth to the paints applied to it in a thin layer, but deprives them of depth; the dark primer imparts depth to the colors; dark soil with a cold tint - cold (Terborkh, Metsu).”

“To create depth of shadows on a light ground, the effect of the white ground on the paints is destroyed by laying out the shadows with dark brown paint (Rembrandt); strong lights on a dark ground are obtained only by eliminating the effect of the dark ground on the paints by applying a sufficient layer of white in the highlights.”

“Intense cold tones on an intense red primer (for example, blue) are obtained only if the action of the red primer is paralyzed by preparation in a cold tone or the cool-colored paint is applied in a thick layer.”

“The most universal color primer is a light gray primer of a neutral tone, since it is equally good for all paints and does not require too impasto painting”1.

Grounds of chromatic colors affect both the lightness of the paintings and their overall color. The influence of the color of the ground in corpus and glaze writing has a different effect. So, green paint, laid as a non-transparent body layer on a red ground, looks especially saturated in its surroundings, but applied with a transparent layer (for example, in watercolor) loses saturation or becomes completely achromatized, since the green light reflected and transmitted by it is absorbed by the red ground.

Secrets of making materials for oil painting

OIL PROCESSING AND REFINING

Oils from flax seeds, hemp, sunflower, and kernels walnut obtained by squeezing with a press. There are two methods of squeezing: hot and cold. Hot, when crushed seeds are heated and a strongly colored oil is obtained, which is of little use for painting. Much better oil, squeezed from seeds using the cold method, it turns out to be less than with the hot method, but it is not contaminated with various impurities and does not have a dark brown color, but is only slightly colored yellow. Freshly obtained oil contains a number of impurities harmful to painting: water, protein substances and mucus, which greatly affect its ability to dry and form durable films. That's why; the oil should be processed or, as they say, “ennobled” by removing water, protein mucus and all sorts of impurities from it. At the same time, it can also be discolored. In the best way The refining of oil is its compaction, that is, oxidation. To do this, the freshly obtained oil is poured into wide-necked glass jars, covered with gauze and exposed in the spring and summer to the sun and air. To clean the oil from impurities and protein mucus, well-dried crackers from black bread are placed at the bottom of the jar, approximately enough so that they occupy x/5 of the jar. Then the jars of oil are placed in the sun and air for 1.5-2 months. Oil, absorbing oxygen from the air, oxidizes and thickens; Under the influence sun rays it bleaches, thickens and becomes almost colorless. Rusks retain protein mucus and various contaminants contained in the oil. The oil obtained in this way is the best painting material and can be successfully used both for erasing with paint substances and for diluting finished paints. When dry, it forms strong and durable films that are incapable of cracking and retain gloss and shine when drying. This oil dries slowly in a thin layer, but immediately in its entire thickness and gives very durable shiny films. Untreated oil dries only from the surface. First, its layer is covered with a film, and completely raw oil remains under it.

Drying oil and its preparation

Drying oil is called boiled drying vegetable oil(flaxseed, poppy seed, nut seed, etc.). Depending on the conditions for cooking the oil, the cooking temperature, the quality and pre-treatment of the oil, drying oils that are completely different in quality and properties are obtained. To prepare good-quality painting drying oil, you need to take good linseed or poppy oil that does not contain any foreign impurities or contaminants. There are three main methods of preparation. drying oils: rapid heating of oil to 280-300° - hot way, at which the oil boils; slow heating of the oil to 120-150°, preventing the oil from boiling during its cooking - the cold method and, finally, the third method - simmering the oil in a warm oven for 6-12 days. The best drying oils suitable for painting purposes1 can only be obtained through the cold method and simmering the oil. The cold method of cooking drying oil consists of pouring the oil into a glazed clay pot and boiling it over moderate heat, heating it slowly for 14 hours and not letting it boil. The boiled oil is poured into a glass vessel and, open, placed in the air and sun for 2-3 months to lighten and thicken. After this, the oil is carefully drained, trying not to touch the formed sediment remaining at the bottom of the vessel, and filtered. Simmering the oil involves pouring the raw oil into a glazed clay pot and placing it in a warm oven for 12-14 days. When foam appears on the oil, it is considered ready. The foam is removed, the oil is allowed to settle for 2-3 months in the air and the sun in a glass jar, then carefully drained without touching the sediment and filtered through cheesecloth. As a result of cooking the oil using these two methods, very light, well-compacted oils are obtained, which when dried give durable and shiny films. These oils do not contain protein substances, mucus and water, since the water evaporates during the cooking process, and the protein substances and mucus coagulate and remain in the sediment. For better sedimentation of protein substances and other impurities during the settling of the oil, it is useful to put a small amount of well-dried black bread crackers in it. While cooking the oil, you should put 2-3 heads of finely chopped garlic into it. Well-cooked drying oils, especially from poppy oil, are a good painting material and can be added to oil paints, used to thin paints during the writing process, and also serve integral part oil and emulsion primers.

Compiled from materials collected by V. E. Makukhin.

Consultant: V. E. Makukhin.

On the cover: A copy of Rembrandt's self-portrait, made by M. M. Devyatov.

Preface.

Mikhail Mikhailovich Devyatov - an outstanding Soviet and Russian artist, painting technologist, restorer, one of the founders and head for many years of the restoration department at the Academy of Arts. Repin, founder of the Laboratory of Painting Technique and Technology, initiator of the creation of the Restoration section of the Union of Artists, Honored Artist, Candidate of Art History, Professor.

Mikhail Mikhailovich contributed huge contribution in development visual arts with his research in the field of painting technology and study of the techniques of the old masters. He managed to capture the very essence of phenomena and present it in simple and understandable language. Devyatov wrote a series of magnificent articles about painting techniques, the basic laws and conditions for the strength of a painting, the meaning and main tasks of copying. Devyatov also wrote a dissertation “Preservation of works of oil painting on canvas and features of the composition of soils,” which is easy to read, like an exciting book.

It's no secret that after October revolution classical painting was subjected to severe persecution, and much knowledge was lost. (Although some loss of knowledge in painting technology began earlier, this was noted by many researchers (J. Vibert “Painting and Its Means”, A. Rybnikov Introductory article to "Treatise on Painting" by Cennino Cennini)).

Mikhail Mikhailovich was the first (in the post-revolutionary period) to introduce the practice of copying into educational process. This initiative was picked up by Ilya Glazunov at his academy.

In the Laboratory of Painting Technique and Technology created by Devyatov, under the guidance of a master, a huge number of soils were tested, according to recipes collected from preserved historical sources, and also developed a modern synthetic soil. Then the selected soils were tested by students and teachers of the Academy of Arts.

One of the parts of these studies were diary reports that students had to write. Since we have not received accurate evidence of the work process outstanding masters, then these diaries seem to lift the veil over the mystery of the creation of works. Also, from the diaries, one can trace the connection between the materials used, the technique of their use and the safety of the item (copy). They can also be used to track whether the student has mastered the lecture materials, how they apply them in practice, as well as the student’s personal discoveries.

The diaries were kept from approximately 1969 to 1987, then this practice gradually faded away. Nevertheless, we were left with very interesting material, which can be very useful for artists and art lovers. In their diaries, students describe not only the progress of their work, but also comments from teachers, which can be very valuable for future generations of artists. Thus, reading these diaries, one can, as it were, “copy” best works Hermitage and Russian Museum.

According to the curriculum compiled by M. M. Devyatov, in the first year students listened to his course of lectures on the technique and technology of painting. In the second year, students copy the best copies made by senior students at the Hermitage. And in the third year, students begin direct copying in the museum. Thus, before practical work a very large part is devoted to mastering the necessary and very important theoretical knowledge.

To better understand what is described in the diaries, it would be useful to read the Articles and Lectures of M. M. Devyatov, as well as those compiled under the leadership of Devyatov Toolkit to the course Painting Techniques “Questions and Answers”. However, here, in the preface, I will try to dwell on the most important points, based on the above books, as well as memoirs, lectures and consultations of Mikhail Mikhailovich’s student and friend - Vladimir Emelyanovich Makukhin, who is currently teaching this course at the Academy of Arts.

Soils.

In his lectures, Mikhail Mikhailovich said that artists are divided into two categories - those who love matte painting, and those who love glossy painting. Those who love glossy painting, seeing matte pieces on their work, usually say: “It’s rotten!”, and are very upset. Thus, the same phenomenon is joy for some, and grief for others. Soils play a very important role in this process. Their composition determines their effect on paints and the artist needs to understand these processes. Now artists have the opportunity to buy materials in stores, rather than making them themselves (as the old masters did, thus ensuring highest quality their works). As many experts note, this opportunity, which seemingly makes the artist’s work easier, is also the reason for the loss of knowledge about the nature of materials and, ultimately, for the decline of painting. Modern trade descriptions of soils do not contain information about their properties, and very often even the composition is not indicated. In this regard, it is very strange to hear the statement of some modern teachers that an artist does not need to be able to make primer on his own, because he can always buy it. It is imperative to understand the compositions and properties of materials, even in order to buy what you need and not be deceived by advertising.

Gloss (shiny surface) reveals deep and rich colors, which matte makes uniformly whitish, lighter and colorless. However, the gloss may make it difficult to see big picture, since reflections and glare will interfere with perceiving it all at the same time. Therefore, often in monumental painting prefer a matte surface.

Generally speaking, glossiness is a natural property of oil paints, as oil itself is shiny. And the matte finish of oil painting came into fashion relatively recently, at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century (Feshin, Borisov-Musatov, etc.). Since the matte surface makes dark and saturated colors less expressive, matte painting usually has light tones, advantageously emphasizing their velvety quality. And glossy paintings usually have rich and even dark tones (for example, old masters).

The oil, enveloping the pigment particles, makes them glossy. And the less oil, and the more the pigment is exposed, the more matte and velvety it becomes. A good example is pastel. It is almost pure pigment, without a binder. When the oil leaves the paint and the paint becomes dull or “withered,” its tone (light-dark) and even color changes somewhat. Dark colors lighten and lose the sonority of color, and light colors somewhat darker. This is due to a change in the refraction of light rays.

Depending on the amount of oil in the paint, its physical properties also change.

The oil dries from top to bottom, forming a film. As the oil dries, it shrinks. (Therefore, you cannot use paint that contains a lot of oil for impasto, textured painting). The oil also tends to turn somewhat yellow in the dark (especially during the drying period); in the light it is restored again. (However, the painting should not dry in the dark, as some yellowing will be more noticeable in this case). Paints on adhesive primers (oil-free paints) turn yellow less, since they contain less oil. But in principle, the yellowing that occurs from a large amount of oil in paints is not significant. The main reason for yellowing and darkening of old paintings is old varnish. It is thinned out and replaced by restorers and underneath is usually a bright and fresh painting. Another reason for the darkening of old paintings is dark soils, since oil paints become more transparent over time and the dark soil “eats” them.

Primers are divided into two categories - pulling and non-pulling (based on their ability to draw oil out of the paint, and, therefore, make it matte or glossy).

Drying can also occur not only from the pulling primer, but also from applying a layer of paint on an insufficiently dry (forming only a film) previous layer of paint. In this case, the insufficiently dried bottom layer begins to draw oil from the upper, new layer. Interlayer treatment with compacted oil helps to prevent this phenomenon, and the addition of thickened oil and resin varnish to paints, which speed up the drying of paints and make it more uniform.

Oil-free paint (paint with little oil in it) becomes thicker (pasty), making it easier to create a textured brushstroke. It dries faster (since it contains less oil). It is harder to spread over the surface (hard brushes and a palette knife are required). Also, oil-free paint turns yellow less, since it contains little oil. The pulling primer, pulling the oil out of the paint, seems to “grab” it, the paint seems to grow into it and harden, “become.” Therefore, a sliding, thin stroke on such a soil is impossible. On stretchy soils, drying is faster also because drying occurs both from above and from below, since these soils provide so-called “through drying”. Quick drying and the thickness of the paint make it possible to quickly gain texture. A striking example impasto painting on stretchy ground – Igor Grabar.

The complete opposite of painting on “breathing” traction soils is painting on impermeable oil and semi-oil soils. (Oil primer is a layer of oil paint (often with some additives) applied to sizing. Semi-oil primer is also a layer of oil paint, but applied to any other primer. Semi-oil primer is also considered to be simply dried (or dried out) painting, which after some time time the artist wants to finish it by applying a new layer of paint).

The dried layer of oil is an impermeable film. Therefore, oil paints applied to such a primer cannot give up part of their oil to it (and thus stick to it), and, therefore, cannot “dry out”, that is, become dull. That is, due to the fact that the oil from the paint cannot go into the ground, the paint itself remains just as shiny. The painting layer on such an impenetrable ground turns out to be thin, and the stroke is gliding and light. The main danger of oil and semi-oil primers is their poor adhesion to paints, since there is no penetrating adhesion here. (A very large number of works are known, even famous artists Soviet period, from whose paintings the paint is falling off. This point has not been sufficiently covered in the education system of artists). When working on oil and semi-oil primers, an additional agent is required to adhere the new layer of paint to the primer.

Pullable soils.

Glue-chalk soil consists of glue (gelatin or fish glue) and chalk. (Sometimes chalk was replaced by gypsum, a substance with similar properties).

Chalk has the ability to absorb oil. Thus, paint applied to the soil, in which chalk is present in sufficient quantities, seems to grow into it, giving up part of its oil. This is a fairly strong type of penetrating adhesion. However, often artists, striving for matte painting, use not only a very adhesive primer, but also greatly de-oil the paints (previously squeezing them onto absorbent paper). In this case, the binder (oil) may become so small that the pigment will not adhere well to the paint, turning almost into a pastel (for example, some of Fechin’s paintings). By running your hand over such a painting, you can remove some of the paint like dust.

Old Flemish painting method.

Tensile glue-chalk soils are the most ancient. They were used on wood and painted on with tempera paints. Then, at the beginning of the 15th century, oil paints were invented (their discovery is attributed to Van Eyck, a Flemish painter). Oil paints attracted artists because of their glossy nature, which was very different from matte tempera. Since only a tacky glue-chalk primer was known, artists came up with all sorts of secrets to make it non-tetch, and thus get the much-loved shine and richness of color that oil gives. The so-called Old Flemish painting method appeared.

(There are disputes about the history of oil painting. Some believe that it appeared gradually: at first, painting started with tempera was completed in oil, thus producing the so-called mixed media(D.I. Kiplik “Painting Technique”). Other researchers believe that oil painting originated in Northern Europe simultaneously with tempera painting and developed in parallel, and in Southern Europe (with its center in Italy) various options mixed technology appeared from the very beginning easel painting(Yu. I. Grenberg “Technology of easel painting”). Recently, a restoration of Van Eyck’s painting “The Annunciation” was carried out and it turned out that the blue cloak of the Mother of God was painted in watercolors (there was a film about the restoration of this painting documentary). Thus, it turns out that mixed technology was present in northern Europe from the very beginning).

The Old Flemish method of painting (according to Kiplik), which was used by Van Eycky, Dürer, Pieter Bruegel and others, consisted of the following: an adhesive primer was applied to a wooden base. Then the drawing was transferred onto this smoothly polished soil, “which was previously carried out in life size paintings separately on paper (“cardboard”), since they avoided drawing directly on the ground so as not to disturb its whiteness.” Then the drawing was outlined with water-soluble paints. If the drawing is translated using charcoal, then drawing with water-soluble paints fixes it. (The drawing can be transferred by covering where necessary reverse side charcoal drawing, placing it on the base future painting and circle along the contour). The drawing was outlined with a pen or brush. With a brush, the drawing was transparently shaded with brown paint “in such a way that the ground could be seen through it.” An example of this stage of work is “Saint Barbara” by Van Eyck. Then the picture could continue to be painted in tempera, and only completed with oil paints.

If the artist wanted to continue working with oil paints after shading the drawing with water-soluble paints, then he needed to somehow isolate the pulling soil from the oil paints, otherwise the paints would lose their sonority, for which artists fell in love with them. Therefore, a layer of transparent glue and one or two layers of oil varnish were applied over the drawing. When the oil varnish dried, it created an impenetrable film, and the oil from the paints could no longer penetrate into the ground.

Glue-chalk soils have a very important feature - oil applied to such soil forms a yellow-brown stain, since chalk, when combined with oil, turns yellow and brown, that is, it loses White color. Therefore, the Old Flemish masters first covered the ground with weak glue (probably no more than 2%) and then with oil varnish (the thicker the varnish, the less its penetration into the ground).

If the painting was just finishing with oil, and the previous layers were done with tempera, then the pigment of tempera paints and their binder isolated the ground from the oil, and it did not darken. (Before working with oil, tempera painting is usually coated with an interlayer varnish, in order to reveal the color of the tempera, and for better integration of the oil layer).

The adhesive primer developed by M. M. Devyatov contains zinc white pigment. The pigment prevents the soil from turning yellow and brown from oil. The zinc white pigment can be partially or completely replaced by another pigment (then a colored primer will be obtained). The ratio of pigment to chalk should remain the same (usually the amount of chalk is equal to the amount of pigment). If you leave only the pigment in the soil and remove the chalk, then the paint will not stick to such a soil, because the pigment does not draw in the oil as chalk does, and there will be no penetrating adhesion.

Another very important feature of glue-chalk soils is their fragility, which comes from brittle skin-bone adhesives (gelatin, fish glue). Therefore, it is very dangerous to increase the required amount of glue; this can lead to ground craquelures with raised edges. This is especially true for such soils on canvas, since this is a more vulnerable base than the solid base of the board.

It is believed that the old Flemings could add light flesh-colored paint to this insulating layer of varnish: “on top of the tempera drawing, an oil varnish was applied with an admixture of transparent flesh-colored paint, through which the shaded drawing was visible. This tone was applied to the entire area of ​​the picture or only to those places where the body was depicted” (D. I. Kiplik “Painting Techniques”). However, in “Saint Barbara” we do not see any translucent flesh tone covering the drawing, although it is obvious that the painting has already begun to be worked out with paints from above. It is likely that for the Old Flemish painting technique it is still painting is more typical on white ground.

Later, when the influence of Italian masters with their colored grounds began to penetrate into Flanders, light and light translucent imprimatures (for example, Rubens) still remained characteristic of the Flemish masters.

The antiseptic used was phenol or catamine. But you can do without an antiseptic, especially if you use the soil quickly and do not store it for a long time.

Gelatin can be used instead of fish glue.

Related information.

"The Flemish method of working with oil paints."

A. Arzamastsev.
"Young Artist" No. 3 1983.

Here are works by Renaissance artists: Jan van Eyck, Petrus Christus, Pieter Bruegel and Leonardo da Vinci. These works by different authors and different in plot are united by one writing method - the Flemish method of painting.

Historically, this is the first method of working with oil paints, and legend attributes its invention, as well as the invention of the paints themselves, to the van Eyck brothers. The Flemish method was popular not only in Northern Europe.

It was brought to Italy, where everyone resorted to it greatest artists the Renaissance until Titian and Giorgione. There is an opinion that Italian artists painted their works in a similar way long before the van Eyck brothers.

We will not delve into history and clarify who was the first to use it, but we will try to talk about the method itself.

Van Eyck brothers.
Ghent Altarpiece. Adam. Fragment.
1432.
Oil, wood.

Van Eyck brothers.
Ghent Altarpiece. Fragment.
1432.
Oil, wood.

Modern studies of works of art allow us to conclude that painting by the old Flemish masters was always done on a white glue ground.

The paints were applied in a thin glaze layer, and in such a way that not only all layers of the painting took part in creating the overall pictorial effect, but also the white color of the primer, which, shining through the paint, illuminates the painting from the inside.

Also noteworthy is the virtual absence of white in painting, with the exception of those cases when white clothes or draperies were painted. Sometimes they are still found in the strongest light, but even then only in the form of the finest glazes.

Petrus Christus.
Portrait of a young girl.
XV century.
Oil, wood.

All work on the painting was carried out in strict sequence. It began with a drawing on thick paper the size of the future painting. The result was the so-called “cardboard”. An example of such cardboard is Leonardo da Vinci’s drawing for the portrait of Isabella d’Este.

Leonardo da Vinci.
Cardboard for the portrait of Isabella d'Este. Fragment.
1499.
Coal, sanguine, pastel.

The next stage of work is transferring the drawing to the ground. To do this, it was pricked with a needle along the entire contour and borders of the shadows. Then the cardboard was placed on a white sanded primer applied to the board, and the design was transferred with charcoal powder. Getting into the holes made in the cardboard, the coal left light outlines of the design on the basis of the picture.

To secure it, the charcoal mark was traced with a pencil, pen, or the sharp tip of a brush. In this case, they used either ink or some kind of transparent paint. Artists never painted directly on the ground, as they were afraid to disturb its whiteness, which, as already mentioned, played the role of the lightest tone in painting.

After transferring the drawing, we began shading with transparent brown paint, making sure that the primer was visible through its layer everywhere. Shading was done with tempera or oil. In the second case, to prevent the paint binder from being absorbed into the soil, it was covered with an additional layer of glue.

At this stage of work, the artist resolved almost all the tasks of the future painting, with the exception of color. Subsequently, no changes were made to the drawing or composition, and already in this form the work was a work of art.

Sometimes, before finishing a painting in color, the entire painting was prepared in so-called “dead colors,” that is, cold, light, low-intensity tones. This preparation took on the final glaze layer of paint, with the help of which life was given to the entire work.

Of course, we have drawn a general outline of the Flemish painting method. Naturally, every artist who used it brought something of his own to it. For example, we know from the biography of the artist Hieronymus Bosch that he painted in one step, using the simplified Flemish method.

At the same time, his paintings are very beautiful, and the colors have not changed color over time. Like all his contemporaries, he prepared a white, thin primer onto which he transferred the most detailed drawing. I shaded it with brown tempera paint, after which I covered the painting with a layer of transparent flesh-colored varnish, insulating the soil from the penetration of oil from subsequent paint layers.

After drying the painting, all that remained was to paint the background with glazes of pre-composed tones, and the work was completed. Only sometimes some places were additionally painted with a second layer to enhance the color. Pieter Bruegel wrote his works in a similar or very similar way.

Pieter Bruegel.
Hunters in the snow. Fragment.
1565.
Oil, wood.

Another variation of the Flemish method can be traced through the work of Leonardo da Vinci. If you look at his unfinished work “The Adoration of the Magi”, you can see that it was started on white ground. The drawing, transferred from cardboard, was outlined with transparent paint such as green earth.

The drawing is shaded in the shadows with one brown tone, close to sepia, composed of three colors: black, speckled and red ocher. The entire work is shaded, the white ground is not left unwritten anywhere, even the sky is prepared in the same brown tone.

Leonardo da Vinci.
Adoration of the Magi. Fragment.
1481-1482.
Oil, wood.

In the finished works of Leonardo da Vinci, the light is obtained thanks to the white ground. He painted the background of his works and clothes with the thinnest overlapping transparent layers of paint.

Using the Flemish method, Leonardo da Vinci was able to achieve an extraordinary rendering of chiaroscuro. At the same time, the paint layer is uniform and very thin.

The Flemish method was not used by artists for long. It existed in its pure form for no more than two centuries, but many great works were created precisely in this way. In addition to the already mentioned masters, it was used by Holbein, Dürer, Perugino, Rogier van der Weyden, Clouet and other artists.

Paintings made using the Flemish method are distinguished by their excellent preservation. Made on seasoned boards and strong soils, they resist destruction well.

The practical absence of white in the painting layer, which loses its hiding power over time and thereby changes the overall color of the work, ensures that we see the paintings almost the same as they came out of the workshops of their creators.

The main conditions that must be observed when using this method are meticulous drawing, the finest calculations, the correct sequence of work and great patience.

Studying the techniques of some old masters, we come across the so-called “Flemish method” of oil painting. This is a multi-layered, technically complex way of writing, the opposite of the “a la prima” technique. Multi-layering implied a special depth of image, shimmer and radiance of colors. However, in the description of this method, such a mysterious stage as the “dead layer” is invariably encountered. Despite the intriguing name, there is no mysticism in it.

But what was it used for?

The term “dead colors” (doodverf - the death of paint) first appears in the work of Karl van Mander “The Book of Artists”. He could call paint this way, on the one hand, literally, because of the deadness that it gives to the image, on the other hand, metaphorically, since this pallor “dies” under the subsequent color. These paints included bleached yellow, black, and red colors in different proportions. For example, cold gray was obtained by mixing white and black, and black and yellow, when combined, formed an olive tint.

The layer painted with “dead colors” is considered a “dead layer”.

Stages of painting with a "Dead layer"

Let's go to the workshop Dutch artist Middle Ages and find out how he wrote.

First, the design was transferred to the primed surface.

The next stage was modeling the volume with transparent penumbra, subtly blending into the light of the ground.

Next, imprimatura was applied - a liquid paint layer. It made it possible to preserve the drawing, preventing particles of coal or pencil from getting into the upper layers of paint, and also protected the colors from further fading. It is thanks to imprimatura that the rich colors in the paintings of Van Eyck, Rogier van der Weyden and other masters of the Northern Renaissance have remained almost unchanged to this day.

The fourth stage was the “dead layer”, in which bleached paints were applied to the volumetric underpainting. The artist needed to preserve the shape of the objects without disturbing the light-shadow contrast, which would lead to dullness in further painting. “Dead colors” were applied only to the light parts of the image; sometimes, imitating sliding rays, whitewash was applied in small dotted strokes. The painting acquired additional volume and an ominous deathly pallor, which, already in the next layer, “came to life” thanks to multi-layered colored glazes. Such a complex painting seems unusually deep and radiant when light is reflected from each layer, as if from a flickering mirror.

Today this method is not often used, however, it is important to know about the secrets of the old masters. Using their experience, you can experiment in your creativity and find your way in all sorts of styles and techniques.

Flemish painting is considered one of the first experiences of artists in oil painting. The authorship of this style, as well as the invention of oil paints themselves, is attributed to the Van Eyck brothers. Stylistics Flemish painting inherent in almost all authors of the Renaissance, in particular the well-known Leonardo da Vinci, Pieter Bruegel and Petrus Christusa left behind a lot of priceless works of art in this genre.

In order to paint a picture using this method, you will need to first create a drawing on paper, and of course, do not forget to buy an easel. The size of the paper stencil must exactly match the size of the future painting. Next, the design is transferred to a white adhesive primer. To do this, a mass of tiny holes are made with needles along the perimeter of the image. Having fixed the pattern in a horizontal plane, take charcoal powder and sprinkle it on the areas with holes. After removing the paper, the individual points are connected with the sharp tip of a brush, pen or pencil. If ink is used, it must be strictly transparent so as not to disturb the whiteness of the ground, which actually gives the finished paintings a special style.

The transferred drawings must be shaded with transparent brown paint. During the process, care should be taken to ensure that the primer remains visible through the applied layers at all times. Oil or tempera could be used as shading. To prevent the oil ink from being absorbed into the soil, it was first coated with glue. Hieronymus Bosch He used brown varnish for this purpose, thanks to which his paintings retained their color for such a long time.

On at this stage the largest volume of work is being performed, so you should definitely buy a tabletop easel, because every self-respecting artist has a couple of such tools. If the painting was planned to be completed in color, then the preliminary layer would be cold, light tones. Oil paints were applied over them, again with a thin glaze layer. As a result, the picture acquired life-like shades and looked much more impressive.

Leonardo da Vinci shaded the entire ground in the shadows with one tone, which was a combination of three colors: red ocher, speckled and black. He painted the clothes and the background of his works with transparent overlapping layers of paint. This technique made it possible to convey the special characteristics of chiaroscuro to the image.