The concept of social mobility: essence, types, parameters and channels of social circulation?

Social mobility is a change by individuals or groups in their position, place, social status in the structure of society.

The theory of social mobility, developed by P. Sorokin, is based on the idea of ​​society as a social space, the elementary particle of which is the individual. The position of a person in social space defined:

1) his attitude towards the social groups with which he interacts;

2) the relationship of groups to each other within the population;

3) the relationship of this population to other populations included in humanity. Individuals have the ability to move within social space.

Depending on the possibility (impossibility or difficulty) of social movements, P. Sorokin identifies two types of social structures :

1) closed, in which social movements are impossible or difficult (the class or caste nature of the social structure of society prevents movements);

2) open, characteristic of modern class society. In open social structures, social mobility takes place - a set of social movements of people in society associated with changes in their status.

Types (types) of mobility :

1) vertical – movement of an individual or group along the “social ladder” up (upward mobility) or down (downward mobility) (the first may be associated with advanced training, appointment to a higher position, receiving a higher income, the second with dismissal, bankruptcy, etc.) d.);

2) horizontal - change social status to an equivalent one (moving from one city to another, moving from one enterprise to another without changing position and level wages etc.);

3) intergenerational, when children achieve a different status than their parents, for example, the parents have the status of workers, and their son, having received higher education, became an engineer;

4) intragenerational, when a person (or age group) changes his social status one or more times throughout his life (a poor man became rich - his status increased, then went bankrupt - his status decreased);

5) interclass, when an individual or group makes inter-class movements (there was a peasant - he became a worker, there was a worker - he became an entrepreneur);

6) intraclass – increase or decrease in social status within the same class (was a small entrepreneur - became a banker);

7) individual;

8) group, etc.

According to P.A. Sorokin, there are no impassable boundaries between strata, but there is a certain asymmetry between ascent and descent. Climbing the social ladder is voluntary, as a rule, and is often carried out not freely, but with the overcoming of certain barriers or the fulfillment of certain conditions that the upper stratum imposes on the social objects making this transition. The descent is usually forced.

Social mobility is measured by indicators:

· mobility distance (the number of steps or levels to which social objects managed to rise or fall);

·volume of mobility (the number of objects that moved vertically along the social ladder over a certain period of time).

The degree of social mobility is an indicator of the level of development of society; the higher this level, the more social levels and positions society presents to social objects for their movements.

For Russia and modern industrial countries it is typical high level social mobility and the construction of new stratification concepts.

The study of social mobility is carried out using two systems of indicators. In the first, the individual is the unit of account. The main indicators are the volume of mobility (absolute and relative, aggregate and differentiated) and the degree of mobility. The volume of mobility shows the number of individuals who have moved vertically up the social ladder over a certain period of time. The degree of mobility is determined by two factors: the range of mobility (the number of statuses in a given society) and the conditions that allow people to move. Thus, maximum mobility is always observed in society during a period of any social and economic transformation (the era of Peter the Great, Soviet society in the 30s, Russian society in the 90s). The degree of mobility also depends on the historical type of stratification (caste, estate, class).

In the second, the unit of reference is status. In this case, the volume of mobility (the number of people who changed their status) describes its direction. The measure of mobility is the mobility step (distance), which shows the number of steps an individual has moved in the vertical direction. Can be intergenerational and intragenerational (“ social career"), interclass and intraclass.

Let us highlight the factors that determine social mobility in society: the historical type of stratification, the state of the economy, the degree of its development, the social situation in the country, ideology, traditions, religion, education, upbringing, family, place of residence, individual characteristics of a person (talent, abilities).

The following can be distinguished general patterns social mobility:

1. during periods of serious changes in society, groups with an accelerated model of mobility appear (“red directors” in the 30s). The factor of origin (place of birth, social status of the family) plays a lesser role;

2. the general direction of intergenerational mobility of young people - from the group of manual workers to the group of mental workers;

3. the higher the social status of the parents, the more often the profession is inherited, and vice versa.

The concept of marginality serves to designate borderliness, intermediateness in relation to any social community: class, national or cultural.

This phenomenon became the subject of analysis in the West. Marginality has come to mean the socio-psychological consequences that arise when it is impossible for migrants or immigrants: national minorities, the unemployed to adapt (adapt to new living conditions, primarily the conditions and demands of the urban lifestyle - urbanization).

A person can no longer live in accordance with the rural norms of behavior learned during the first socialization. But he is not ready to live and, fully and according to the rules of urban culture, sees only the heights of urban culture, or its negative sides. This is how a marginal situation arises. Old values ​​and norms seem to be rejected, but there is no corresponding introduction to new conditions, to a new subculture.

Thus, the loss of subjective belonging to a group, a social community without subsequent entry into another group leads to the loss of subjective self-identification - self-identification, the emergence of a special type of personality - marginal.

Marginal, marginal personality is an individual:

A) who has lost his former social status;

B) deprived of the opportunity to engage in usual activities;

C) and, in addition, who turned out to be unable to adapt to the new socio-cultural environment of the country within which he formally exists;

D) his behavior is extreme

he is either very passive,

·or very aggressive, capable of unpredictable actions.

1. The essence of social mobility
2. Types of social mobility
3. Factors of social mobility

Bibliography

Topic 2: Interviewing as a type of survey

1. Survey methods
2. Interviewing

Bibliography

Topic 1. Social mobility: essence, types, factors

The study of social mobility was started by P. Sorokin, who published the book “Social Mobility, Its Forms and Fluctuation” in 1927. He wrote: “Social mobility refers to any transition of an individual or social object(values), i.e. everything that is created or modified by human activity, from one social position to another.

An important place in the study of social structure is occupied by issues of social mobility of the population, that is, the transition of a person from one class to another, from one intraclass group to another, social movements between generations. Social movements are mass character and as society develops they become more intense. Sociologists study the nature of social movements, their direction, intensity; movement between classes, generations, cities and regions. They can be positive or negative, encouraged or, conversely, restrained.

In the sociology of social movements, the main stages of a professional career are studied and the social status of parents and children is compared.

The problem of social mobility is also widely studied in sociology. To be more precise, social mobility is a change in social status. There is a status - real and imaginary, ascribed. Any person receives a certain status already at birth, depending on his belonging to a certain race, gender, place of birth, and the status of his parents.

1. The essence of social mobility

Social mobility is the totality of social movements of people, i.e. changes by an individual or group in social status, place occupied in the stratification structure of society. The term “social mobility” was introduced into sociology in 1927 by P.A. Sorokin.

The variety of relationships between roles and positions lead to differences between people in each particular society. The problem comes down to somehow ordering these relationships between categories of people that differ in many aspects.

In the very general view inequality means that people live in conditions in which they have unequal access to limited resources of material and spiritual consumption. To describe the system of inequality between groups of people in sociology, the concept of “social stratification” is widely used.

When considering the problem of social inequality, it is quite justified to proceed from the theory of socio-economic heterogeneity of labor. Performing qualitatively unequal types of labor, satisfying social needs to varying degrees, people sometimes find themselves engaged in economically heterogeneous labor, because such types of labor have different assessment their social usefulness.

It is the socio-economic heterogeneity of labor that is not only a consequence, but also the reason for the appropriation of power, property, prestige by some people and the lack of all these signs of advancement in the social hierarchy by others. Each of the groups develops its own values ​​and norms and relies on them; if they are located according to a hierarchical principle, then they are social layers.

In social stratification there is a tendency to inherit positions. The principle of inheritance of positions leads to the fact that not all capable and educated individuals have equal chances occupy positions of power, high principles, and well-paid positions. There are two selection mechanisms at work here: unequal access to truly high-quality education; unequal opportunities for equally qualified individuals to obtain positions.

Social stratification has a traditional character. Because with the historical mobility of a form, its essence, that is, the inequality of position of different groups of people, is preserved throughout the entire history of civilization. Even in primitive societies age and sex combined with physical strength was an important criterion for stratification.

Considering the dissatisfaction of members of society with the existing system of distribution of power, property and conditions individual development, we still need to keep in mind the universality of human inequality.

Stratification, like any other science, has its own forms. So far we have talked about inequality without taking into account its form. Meanwhile, the intensity of stratification also depends on the shape. The theoretical possibilities here range from such an extreme, when the same amount of both is attributed to any status. There were no extreme forms of stratification in any historical object.

Let's try to compare the situation when there are numerous social strata in society, the social distance between which is small, the level of mobility is high, the lower strata make up a minority of members of society, rapid technological growth constantly raises the “bar” of meaningful work at the lower tiers of production positions, social protection of the weak, among other things , guarantees the strong and advanced calmness and the realization of potentialities. It is difficult to deny that such a society, such interlayer interaction, is more of an ideal model than an everyday reality.

Most modern societies are far from this model. Or there is a concentration of power and resources among a numerically small elite. The concentration among the elite of such status attributes as power, property and education prevents social interaction between the elite and other strata, leads to excessive social distance between it and the majority. It means that middle class There are few in number and the top is deprived of communication with other groups. It is obvious that such a social order contributes to destructive conflicts.

There are two main types of social mobility - intergenerational and intragenerational. They, in turn, fall into subspecies and subtypes, which are closely related to each other. Intergenerational mobility involves children achieving a higher social position or falling to a lower level than their parents. Example: a miner's son becomes an engineer. Intragenerational mobility occurs where the same individual, apart from comparison with his father, changes social positions several times throughout his life. Otherwise it is called social career. Example: a turner becomes an engineer, and then a workshop manager, a plant director, and a minister of the engineering industry. The first type of mobility refers to long-term, and the second - to short-term processes. In the first case, sociologists are more interested in interclass mobility, and in the second, in the movement from the sphere of physical labor to the sphere of mental labor. Individual mobility means the social movement of a specific person. Factors of individual mobility include advancement up the career and professional ladder associated with advanced training, level of education, occupation of administrative positions, i.e. what is called a career. Individual mobility can be linked to political and entrepreneurial activity, service in the army, in the church and other government institutions. One of effective ways upward individual mobility is considered a profitable marriage. Group mobility occurs when movements are made collectively and the status of a particular stratum changes. Group mobility occurs primarily where changes occur in the stratification system itself. Movements occur collectively, for example, after social revolution the old class cedes its dominant position to the new class. The social mobility of the population is influenced by circumstances such as changes in living conditions in the city or rural areas, people acquiring new professions or changing the type of activity (say, an entrepreneur devotes himself entirely to politics). All this represents important point functioning of the social structure of society. Among the reasons enhancing social mobility is the change public opinion in relation to the prestige of certain professions and, as a result, changes in the professional interests of various groups of people. For example, larger number people are interested in business, political and scientific activity and much less - to engage in agriculture. Interest in the nature and content of work and living conditions may change from generation to generation, or perhaps this is happening more and more often among people of the same generation. As a result, the process of transition of people from one professional and social layer to another is intensifying. The study of social mobility is important not only for scientists, but also for statesmen. It is necessary to imagine more fully real picture social movements, to know their causes and main directions in order to control these processes within the limits necessary for society, consciously influencing them in the interests of maintaining not only the necessary social dynamics, but also the stability of society and improving people's lives.

2. Types of social mobility

There are two types of social mobility: vertical and horizontal. Vertical mobility, in turn, depending on the direction of movement, is divided into upward mobility (social ascent, upward movement) and downward mobility (social descent, downward movement). Horizontal mobility implies the transition of an individual from one social layer to another located at the same level. This type of mobility may be associated with a change in place of residence (migration), transition to another religious group (change of religion), etc.

There is a well-known asymmetry between ascent and descent: everyone wants to go up and no one wants to go down the social ladder. As a rule, ascent is a voluntary phenomenon, and descent is forced. Research shows that those with higher statuses prefer high positions for themselves and their children, but those with low statuses also want the same for themselves and their children. This is how it works in human society: everyone strives upward and no one strives downwards. Vertical mobility implies movement from one stratum (estate, class, caste) to another. Depending on the direction of movement, there is upward mobility (social ascent, upward movement) and downward mobility (social descent, downward movement). Promotion is an example of upward mobility, dismissal, demotion is an example of downward mobility. Examples of horizontal mobility are movement from an Orthodox to a Catholic religious group, from one citizenship to another, from one family (parental) to another (one’s own, newly formed), from one profession to another. Such movements occur without a noticeable change in social position in the vertical direction. A type of horizontal mobility is geographic mobility. It does not imply a change in status or group, but a movement from one place to another while maintaining the same status. An example is international and interregional tourism, moving from city to village and back, moving from one enterprise to another. If a change of location is added to a change of status, then geographic mobility turns into migration. If a villager came to the city to visit relatives, then this is geographical mobility. If he moved to the city for permanent residence and found work here, then this is already migration. He changed his profession. Vertical and horizontal mobility are influenced by gender, age, birth rate, death rate, and population density. In general, young men are more mobile than older men and women. Overpopulated countries are more likely to experience the effects of emigration than immigration. Where the birth rate is high, the population is younger and therefore more mobile, and vice versa.

The main systems (types) of social stratification (social stratification (from the Latin stratum - layer and facio - do), one of the main concepts of bourgeois sociology, denoting a system of signs and criteria of social stratification, inequality in society; the social structure of society; a branch of bourgeois sociology. ) are:

1. slavery. Under this stratification system, two main groups of the population are distinguished, differing in their status, rights and responsibilities: free and slaves;

2. castes. At caste system stratification status is determined from birth and is lifelong;

3. clans. This type is typical for agricultural societies. Clans resemble highly extended families;

4. classes.

The first three types of social stratification are classified as closed, the fourth - open. A closed system is a social structure whose members have great difficulty changing their status. An open system is a social structure in which members can change their status relatively easily. Changes in status are associated with the concept of "social mobility"

Methods for studying social stratification come down to choosing criteria for identifying population groups in society and actually conducting research to identify these groups. The main problem is the choice of criteria according to which population groups are distinguished. This depends on the researcher’s theoretical views on the problem of social stratification, as well as the name of the identified groups (stratum, classes, strata). The historical era has a great influence through the level of development of society itself and the relationships that have developed in it (classes, new population groups corresponding to new industries) and the level of development of sociology as a science.

As a rule, one of the main criteria for identifying strata in society is the level of income, profession, social status, level of education, and position in the “management-execution” system.

All over the world, two stratification indicators are used:

1. height of stratification - the social distance between the highest and lowest statuses of a given particular society;

2. stratification profile - shows the ratio of the number of places (social positions) in social structure society as their status increases.

3. Factors of social mobility

Most Western sociologists identify the economic one as the dominant factor of social mobility in modern societies, which becomes basic in modern Russia, where, after the rehabilitation of private property and entrepreneurship, wealth became a generally accepted criterion of social success, social security and the possibility of advancement to higher strata.

Another main factor in social mobility is profession. Indeed, in an industrial society, the development of advanced technologies gives impetus to the emergence of many new professions that require high qualifications and training, on the one hand, and are highly paid and prestigious, on the other. As a result, the level of mobility is increasing, both voluntary, achievement-oriented, and forced, based on the need to improve the qualification level.

This, in turn, determines the high importance of education as a factor of social mobility. M. Weber, as a criterion for claims to “... positive or negative privileges in relation to social prestige,” indicated, firstly, lifestyle, secondly, “formal education, consisting of practical or theoretical training and the adoption of the corresponding lifestyle,” and , thirdly, the prestige of birth or profession. On the other hand, P.A. Sorokin noted that “the role of the channel played by the modern school is becoming increasingly important, because, in fact, it has taken over the functions previously performed by the church, family and some other institutions.”

Consequently, the education received and the manners and lifestyle developed in the process of receiving it, as well as professional status and the material reward associated with it, give the individual grounds to claim a higher social position and the prestige associated with this position.

Wealth and power as the main factors of mobility

Most researchers put the economic (income, wealth, property) factor in first place, based on the indicators of average per capita monetary income in the “rich-poor” system and on the value of the decile coefficient. For example, in 1997 The incomes of the top 10% were 12.8 times higher than those of the bottom 10%, while in developed Western countries this ratio does not exceed 4-5%, and this ratio is unlikely to have dropped sharply by 2002.

Another side of property differentiation is official status, especially the presence of administrative financial functions; a group of people has already been sufficiently formed, which, thanks to its position in the system of power relations, becomes dominant and privileged.

In the minds of the population, wealth is also the main factor determining inequality relations. So, according to Z.T. Golenkova, the majority of respondents (91.3% and 91.2%, respectively) named power and income as the main factors determining the social stratification of society, while education and profession occupied only the fifth (35.6%) and seventh (30.1% ) places.

Thus, in Russian society the entire space of social stratification is determined by practically one indicator, namely material (wealth), with a sharp decrease in the importance of other criteria of differentiation, which cease to play a balancing role.

This state of affairs leads to increased disintegration processes, polarization and social inequality, limited upward mobility and, ultimately, to the isolation of the upper strata, i.e., to what society is trying to escape from.

social stratification movement survey

So, mass group vertical movements are associated, firstly, with profound, serious changes in the social economic structure society, causing the emergence of new classes and social groups striving to gain a place in the social hierarchy corresponding to their strength and influence. Secondly, with a change in ideological guidelines, systems of values ​​and norms, and political priorities. In this case, there is a movement upward of those political forces that were able to perceive changes in the mentality, orientation and ideals of the population. A painful but inevitable change is taking place. political elite. Movements in the economic, political and professional status hierarchy usually occur simultaneously or with a small gap in time. The reasons for this are in the interaction of factors that cause them: changes in the socio-economic structure predetermine shifts in mass consciousness, and the emergence of a new value system opens the way for the legitimation of social interests, requests and claims of social groups oriented towards it. Thus, people’s disapprovingly distrustful attitude towards entrepreneurs began to change towards approval, and even hope, associated with their activities. This trend, as sociological surveys show, is especially pronounced among young people, who are less connected with the ideological prejudices of the past. The turn in mass consciousness ultimately determines silent agreement population with the rise of the entrepreneurial class, with its arrival at the highest social levels.

Topic 2. Interviewing as a type of survey

The survey method is not an invention of sociologists. In all branches of science, where a researcher turns to a person with questions to obtain information, he deals with various modifications of this method.

The specificity of the method lies, first of all, in the fact that when it is used, the source of primary sociological information is a person (respondent) - a direct participant in the social processes and phenomena being studied. There are two types of surveys associated with written or oral communication with respondents - questioning and interviewing. They are based on a set of proposed survey questions, the answers to which form the primary information.

Each version of the survey represents one of the most complex types of socio-psychological communication, determined by a number of circumstances: the content of the questionnaire or interview, that is, the list of questions in which the subject of the study is implemented; quality of work of the questionnaire or interviewer; the respondent’s concentrated work on the proposed questions; psychological state of the respondent at the time of the survey.

The survey method, relying on a sufficient number of trained questionnaires or interviewers, allows you to interview a fairly large number of respondents in the shortest possible time and obtain information that is different in nature.

However, one should always take into account the possible distortion of information obtained by the survey method, associated with the peculiarities of the process of reflecting various aspects of social practice in the minds of people.

1. Survey methods

The bulk of empirical information is obtained in sociology by survey methods, the essence of which is to obtain information about the attitude of respondents to certain vital phenomena and events of social life. The great importance of these methods is determined, firstly, by organizational advantages (it is always easier to organize a survey than to carry out any other method of sociological research); secondly, the relative cheapness, thirdly, the content and versatility of the information obtained by the survey method (using the survey method you can obtain any information on the most different problems, which cannot always be documented or recorded through observation); fourthly, the possibility of maximum use of technical means for processing the data obtained as a result of the survey. However, survey methods also have their negative sides.

The quality of information obtained by these methods is influenced by factors related, on the one hand, to the personality of the respondent (level of education, culture, memory properties, defense mechanisms psyche, attitude to the problem under study and to the organization or person conducting the survey), on the other hand, factors associated with the activities of the researcher himself (starting with professionalism in compiling a questionnaire and ending with the skill of the questionnairer or interviewer working with the respondent to obtain the required information).

The results of the survey are negatively affected by the presence of unauthorized persons during the survey, poorly chosen time and place of the survey, non-compliance with the principles of anonymity, and poor organization of the survey procedure itself. To neutralize these factors, it is necessary to strictly comply with regulatory requirements for the use of survey techniques.

The main types of survey methods are questionnaires and sociological interviews, which, depending on a number of characteristics, are divided into: continuous and sample; individual and group; mass and expert; oral and written; full-time and correspondence; disposable and reusable; standardized non-standardized.

The specificity of survey methods is that, from a logical point of view, they implement a “question-answer” system, followed by qualitative and quantitative processing of the responses received. With a number common features These methods also have their own distinctive characteristics. Let's look at them in more detail. Questionnaire survey. When conducting a questionnaire survey, three stages are passed: - the preparatory stage (including the development of a survey program, drawing up a plan and network diagram for the robot, designing tools, pilot testing them, reproducing tools, drawing up instructions for the questionnaire, respondent and other persons participating in the survey, selection and preparation of interviewers, questionnaires, solving organizational problems).

Operational stage

The survey process itself, which has its own stages of phased implementation; - the resulting stage is the processing of the information received. Based on the structure of the method, its characteristics are determined, which includes a number of requirements for the initial documents of the questionnaire, for the questionnaire, for the respondent and for the instrument itself (for the questionnaire, questionnaire).

The main means of communication when conducting a survey is a questionnaire. Both the compilation of the questionnaire and the methods of working with it have their own methodological techniques and characteristics, the observance of which is a necessary condition successful implementation of this method aimed at obtaining reliable information. Each specific sociological study requires the creation of a special questionnaire, but they all have a common structure. Any questionnaire includes three main parts:

1) introductory

3) the final part.

The introduction indicates who is conducting the research, its purpose and objectives, the method of filling out the questionnaire, emphasizes the anonymous nature of its completion, and also expresses gratitude for participating in the survey. The introductory part also includes instructions for filling out the questionnaire.

The final (demographic part) contains information about respondents in order to check the reliability of the information. These are questions relating to gender, age, education, place of residence, social status and origin, work experience of the respondent, etc. Of particular importance is the compilation of the main part of the questionnaire, because The success of the research largely depends on this. The content of the questionnaire (the nature and types of questions asked, the order in which they are placed, the formalization of expected answers) is determined by the desire to obtain the most reliable information about the object being studied. To do this, you need to be well versed in the system of questions on the basis of which the content of the questionnaire is formed. Formulation of questions is the most difficult stage of compiling a questionnaire.

Based on subject content, questions can be divided into:

Questions about facts. The purpose of these questions is to obtain information about social phenomena, the state of affairs in production, and the behavior of others. They may also relate to the personality of the respondent himself when he fills out the final data, as well as carry information about his actions, actions or their consequences.

Questions about knowledge. Their purpose is to reveal what the respondent knows and can state. As a rule, these are exam-type questions aimed at identifying the respondent’s level of awareness and knowledge in a certain area. Such questions may contain tasks, experimental and game situations, the solution of which requires the respondent to use certain skills, knowledge of specific facts, events, names.

Questions about opinion. These questions are aimed at recording facts, wishes, expectations, plans for the future and can relate to any problems and personality of the respondent. The answer in this case is value judgments based on individual ideas. Through opinions, a person’s attitude to certain events is revealed.

Questions about motives. These questions are designed to reveal a person’s subjective understanding of the motives of his activities. One question about motives cannot give a true picture of the motivation of activity; this requires a whole range of similar questions.

By their logical nature, questions are divided into:

Main questions. Based on the answers to these questions, conclusions are drawn about the phenomenon being studied; they make up the majority of the questionnaire.

Questions are filters. These questions are created to screen out incompetent persons during a survey on the problem being studied or to single out a portion of respondents from the entire array on a certain basis.

Control questions. They serve to check the stability, truthfulness and consistency of answers, determine their sincerity and reliability.

Leading questions help the respondent to correctly understand the main question and help give a more accurate answer.

According to their psychological function, which determines the respondent’s attitude to the very fact of the survey and to the questions that he has to answer, questions are divided into:

Contact questions serve to establish contact with the respondent. Their goal is to create interest in the research and encourage participation in it. As a rule, this is the first or one of the first questions of the questionnaire, which should be very simple in form and concern the respondent himself, as if to set him up for interested participation in the survey. Questions of purely event-related nature are often used as contact questions. The main function of this type of question is to facilitate interaction with the respondent during the survey, encouraging him to provide the most complete and sincere representation of his opinion on the essence of the problem under study.

Buffer questions. The purpose of this type of question is to switch attention when moving from one thematic block to another, and often this type of question represents not only the question itself, but also a preamble to it, where the researcher explains the logic of thought, thereby creating symmetry of communication: the respondent is specifically asked to switch from one problem and not another and it is explained why this needs to be done, he is invited to think, again focus his attention, switch. Questions of this type usually begin with the general formula: “What do you think?” - and then there is a description of the new problem.

Direct questions are aimed at expressing the respondent’s attitude towards the problem being analyzed, their assessment from his own position.

Indirect questions. When answering these questions, the respondent answers on behalf of the group, collective, in an impersonal form, which allows him, as it were, to hide his own position and strengthen the critical emphasis of his statements. In addition, indirect questions are also asked when direct questions are not entirely convenient to ask or there is an assumption that they will not receive sincere answers; these are situations concerning private, intimate parties human life or their relationship to the authorities, to their immediate superior, etc.

Based on the nature of the answers to the questions, they are divided into the following types:

Open questions require an original narrative response in the form of a word, sentence or several sentences. Formally, these questions are distinguished by the fact that they are followed by several blank lines, which must be filled in. The answer received is of a natural nature and provides maximum information, which is very important for a sociologist. However, difficulties arise associated with processing the received responses and encoding them, which inevitably leads to a significant limitation in the use of computers.

Half-closed questions. Here, along with a set of specific answer options, in a situation where it is impossible to choose a suitable option from the proposed list, the respondent is given the opportunity to express his opinion on the problem under discussion in free form, i.e. signs of openness and closedness are combined. Scale questions. The answer to these questions is given in the form of a scale in which one or another indicator must be noted.

Questions menu. Here the respondent is asked to choose any combination of the proposed answers. Alternative questions require “yes-no” answers and are mutually exclusive. In this case, the proposed list of alternatives must be completely exhaustive, and the alternatives themselves must be mixed without shifting in any direction, i.e. balanced. The sequence of questions itself can be formed either by the funnel method (arrangement of questions from the simplest to the most complex), or determined by the method of stage-by-stage development of questions (Gallup's five-dimensional plan). It is necessary to remember that in any case the number of questions in the questionnaire is limited. Practice shows that a questionnaire that requires more than 45 minutes to fill out contains more random or insufficient information. Therefore, the optimal time for filling out the questionnaire is 35-45 minutes (which corresponds to 25-30 questions on the research topic). Drawing up a questionnaire involves checking, testing, and clarifying it. A pilot study is conducted to assess the quality of the questionnaire. During it, the content of the questionnaire, the wording and sequence of questions, answer options, etc. are checked. The piloting is carried out on a micro-sample (up to 100 people) by an experienced sociologist in the form of an interview with recording of the respondent’s answers, his reactions to the content of the questions, their understanding and perception, as well as with the obligatory recording of the time spent on the survey. All this allows us to identify shortcomings in the tools, correct them and adapt the questionnaire to mass work.

Based on the method of distributing questionnaires, surveys are divided into:

Handout (a questionnaire survey in which the questionnaire is personally handed over by the questionnaire and either waits for it to be filled out and then receives it immediately - an in-person handout survey, or receives a completed questionnaire a few days later - an absentee handout survey)

Postal (the questionnaire, with prior consent, is sent and received via mail)

Press (the questionnaire is offered to the reader through a printed publication) - teletype (with this method, the distribution and collection of tools and accompanying documents is carried out using a teletype and telegraph network).

According to the type of research tasks, surveys are:

In-depth (aimed at obtaining search information) - focused (data is collected on a specific situation) - standardized (aimed at obtaining statistical information) - sociometric (aimed at obtaining information about relationships in small groups)

According to the level of competence of respondents, they are distinguished:

Mass survey (a non-specialist’s opinion on a particular topic) - a mass survey in collaboration with a researcher (involves information assistance to the respondent from the questionnaire in understanding the analyzed situation)

Symptomatic survey (sufficient knowledge of general information by the respondent without a deep understanding of the tasks and goals of the study) - expert survey (survey of specialists on the problem being analyzed). After collecting the questionnaires, their processing and data analysis begins. From the analysis it follows that the questionnaire method is the most important method collection primary information in social research.

Interview. However, despite the importance of the questionnaire method of this method, it nevertheless needs appropriate adjustment and addition from other methods used in sociology. This addition is carried out, first of all, by the second type of survey method, which is the social interview.

Sociological interviews have a wide range of applications; they are used at the preparatory stage of research; when conducting a pilot study for the purpose of adjusting and testing social tools; as an independent research method (today one of the main ones) and as a way to control the reliability of information obtained by other methods of social research. An interview is the most flexible method of collecting social information, involving a conversation based on direct, personal contact between the sociologist and the respondent.

Interviewing has its own specifics compared to questioning. The main difference lies in the way the sociologist and the respondent communicate. When conducting a survey, it is completely mediated by the questionnaire: the surveyor is passive, the content and meaning of the questions are interpreted by the respondent himself in accordance with the ideas and beliefs that he has formed regarding the essence of the problem being discussed. The respondent independently formulates his answer and records it in the questionnaire. When conducting a social interview, contact between the sociologist - interviewer and the interviewee is carried out directly; the interviewer organizes the interview, asks questions, conducts the conversation, directs it, and records the answers received. The interviewer can clarify the wording of the questions asked if the respondent does not understand them, as well as clarify the respondent’s point of view, ask him for additional information in order to adequately, accurately present it in the questionnaire (which is impossible during a questionnaire).

It is obvious that to obtain the same amount of information when using the interview method, much more time will be spent than when using the questionnaire method.

Conducting an interview requires organizational preparation, which involves choosing the place and time of the interview. The location of the interview is determined by the specifics of the subject of research. In any case, the environment in which the interview is conducted should be calm and confidential, i.e. without the presence of unauthorized persons at a time convenient for the respondent.

The work of the interviewer himself involves the following tasks:

Establishing contact with respondents

Setting the right interview questions

Correct recording of answers

1. Interviewing

When interviewing, contact between the researcher and the respondent is carried out with the help of an interviewer, who asks questions provided by the researcher, organizes and directs the conversation with each individual and records the answers received according to instructions. This survey method is more time-consuming and expensive than questionnaires, but it increases the reliability of the data collected by reducing non-response and errors in completing questionnaires.

Features of the interview manifest themselves differently in different interviews. organizational forms. Let's look at them.

Interview at the place of work, classes, that is, in the office premises. It is most appropriate when production or educational teams are studied, and the subject of research is related to production or educational affairs.

Interview at the place of residence. It becomes preferable if the subject of the survey concerns problems that are more convenient to talk about in an informal setting, free from the influence of official or educational relationships.

In applied sociology, there are three types of interviews: formalized, focused and free.

Formal interview- the most common type of interviewing. In this case, communication between the interviewer and the respondent is strictly regulated by a detailed questionnaire and instructions intended for the interviewer. When using this type of survey, the interviewer must strictly adhere to the wording of the questions and their sequence.

Focused interview- the next step leading to a decrease in the standardization of the behavior of the interviewer and the interviewee. It aims to collect opinions and assessments about a specific situation, phenomenon, its consequences or causes. Respondents in this type of interview are introduced to the subject of the conversation in advance. Questions for such an interview are also prepared in advance, and a list of them is mandatory for the interviewer: he can change their sequence and wording, but must obtain information on each question.

Free interview characterized by minimal standardization of the interviewer's behavior. This type of interview is used when the researcher begins to define the research problem. A free interview is conducted without a pre-prepared questionnaire or a developed conversation plan; Only the topic of the interview is determined.

Interviewing is a form of face-to-face surveying in which the researcher is in direct contact with the respondent. This method is preferable to questionnaires in the following respects:

a) there are practically no unanswered questions with him;

b) vague or contradictory answers can be clarified;

c) it is possible to observe the respondent and record not only his verbal responses, but also non-verbal reactions;

d) the information received is more complete, deeper and more reliable compared to the questionnaire.

The main disadvantage of the interviewing method is its low efficiency, significant time consumption, the need for a large number of interviewers, and the impossibility of using it in situations of short-term mass surveys.

For novice sociologists, it presents many difficulties, because requires special preparation and extensive training. In addition, different types of interviewing require the researcher to have ambiguous sets of knowledge and skills.

The most widespread in sociology is standardized interview, distinctive feature and which is a strict sequence, pre-prepared clear formulations of questions and thoughtful models of answers to them. It can be carried out using a questionnaire questionnaire, which is often done to control and supplement survey data.

Somewhat less commonly used semi-standardized interview. It is carried out on the basis not of a formalized questionnaire, but of a memo (“guide”) with a list of mandatory questions, usually semi-closed ones, which do not exclude discussion with the respondent of other problems related to the topic of research.

Even less common are focused interviews, in which only the initial question is standardized (albeit in several variations), and the main task is seen as focusing the respondents’ attention on discussing the version of the problem that seems most important to them.

Only experienced sociologists (and even then not always) use free and exploratory interviewing. An interview is called free when the interviewer is faced with the problem of collecting information relevant to research tasks without the presence of a pre-developed instrument. Here the sociologist is free to choose questions, determine their order, quantity and methods of expression, as well as methods of recording information.

An exploratory interview (its other designation is in-depth) is used to determine and/or clarify the formulation of working hypotheses at the stage of developing a research program. Its purpose is not only and not so much to obtain information about the object, but rather to find out what information is to be produced in the upcoming study. At the same time, both the interviewer and the respondent are free to choose how to conduct the conversation.

Each of the five described types of interviews can be implemented:

a) once or in panels (repeatedly after a certain time interval);

b) in interpersonal (interviewer-respondent), personal-group (a group of interviewers - a respondent or, conversely, an interviewer - a group of respondents) and group-group form (when a group of interviewers talks with a group of respondents).

To conduct one-time standardized interviews of an interpersonal nature, it is not necessary to involve qualified sociologists (sometimes this is even desirable in order to increase the impartiality of the data). But without them it is impossible to obtain reliable information in all other types of interviewing.

Thus, a questionnaire survey and a sociological interview provide the bulk of social information. Despite all its importance, one cannot fail to notice a certain amount of subjectivity in this information, because one way or another it contains the opinion of people, which by its very nature cannot but be subjective. The researcher’s task is to reduce this share and, on the basis of subjective opinions, to record the manifestation of objective phenomena and trends in social life. For this purpose they are used special methods processing questionnaires and interview forms in order to obtain objective information, as well as the ability to supplement this information using other methods.

Bibliography

Topic 1:

1. Sorokin P. Social stratification and mobility // Man, civilization, society. M., 1992.
2. Babosov E.M. General sociology: Textbook for universities, 2005.
3. Kravchenko, A.A., Sociology. General course: Textbook for universities, Logos, 2007.
4. wikipedia.org

Topic 2:

1. World of dictionaries. Sociological Dictionary http://mirslovarei.com/soc_A/
2. http://slovari.yandex.ru
3. http://socio.rin.ru
4. Mannheim JB, Rich RK. Political Science: Research Methods, M.: Publishing House “Ves Mir”, 1997

Social mobility is the possibility and the very fact of moving a person or an entire person between different social positions of a system of social stratification. This concept characterizes society and its structure in dynamics. The theory of this problem was developed in detail by P. Sorokin.

The types are distinguished as follows. First of all, individual and group mobility are distinguished. The first characterizes the movement of one person, which occurs independently of others. In the process of moving between social groups, strata, and when changing statuses, an individual uses such methods of mobility as changing own image life; conscious development of new status (typical for a certain level) behavior; change in the usual social environment; marriage with a representative of a different (preferably higher) status stratum; getting an education.

The second is collective movement due to the importance of the entire class of people, estate, etc. It can be provoked by civil wars, foreign interventions, the creation of empires, and the overthrow of regimes. Such organized group movement of people can also be initiated by the state from above. It can be carried out with or without the consent of people (Komsomol construction projects in the USSR, repatriation of Chechens and Ingush, etc.) Therefore, social mobility can be both voluntary and involuntary.

The opposite type of organized mobility is structural (forced), in which movement between social categories occurs due to changes in the professional structure (creation of new jobs, emergence of new ones). Such changes occur against the will of people. Reduction, for example, of economic sectors, and together with jobs, forces people to look for new employment, changing their usual status. The reasons for such changes may be rooted in. economic growth, technical revolutions, political transformations, changes in the birth rate.

Exchange (circular or true) social mobility refers to the mutual exchange of individuals between layers of society. The social movements that occur in this case are caused by the personal achievements (failures) of people, the emergence of new systemic opportunities of any quality (educational, political, legal). An example is the movement of Russian residents to its large cities in order to earn money.

Particular attention should be paid to such basic types of movements of people in society as horizontal and vertical social mobility. By vertical movement we mean the transition of people from one class to another, by horizontal movement - from one social group to another while maintaining their social status. For example, changing a job to one of similar status is called horizontal labor mobility; place of residence to a settlement of equivalent status - horizontal migration.

When moving vertically, people change their mobility by increasing it (upward mobility) or decreasing it (downward mobility). Examples of these movements: promotion or The main channels of such movements are: church, family, government groups, school, political parties and organizations, professional organizations.

Social mobility can also be intergenerational (changes in the status of children in comparison with their parents) and intragenerational (changes in a person’s status throughout his life).

The study of social mobility is closely related to the theory of social stratification.

Social stratification, in our opinion, primarily mediates a person’s desire to move from one social layer to another. This desire is key in studying the nature of social mobility.

In our opinion, a person’s belonging to a certain social stratum influences the attitude towards a person, since belonging to a specific social stratum influences people’s behavior and thinking to a much greater extent than other aspects social life, it determines their life chances, the more natural is a person’s desire to achieve more significant social heights and find himself in a different social stratum.

Turning to social mobility, we must again mention P.A. Sorokina. It was he who owned the term itself and the first major work on this problem (published in 1927).

This work, entitled “Social Mobility,” belongs to the sociological classics, and its most important provisions have long been included in numerous textbooks on the social sciences.

What is social mobility? This is a change in the position of groups and individuals within the system of social stratification. This is a change in social status, the social position of people in the social structure of society. Thus, a change by an individual from one social status to another, as a rule, means his transition from one social group to another. This is, for example, the transition from teenagers to young men, from schoolchildren to students, from cadets to officers. People are in constant social movement, and society is in development.

Horizontal mobility involves the movement of an individual from one social group to another, with both groups being at approximately the same level. Examples in this case include movements from one citizenship to another, from an Orthodox religious group to a Catholic one, from one labor collective to another.

Such movements are not accompanied by noticeable changes in social position in the vertical direction.

Vertical mobility involves the movement of an individual or group from one social stratum to another. Depending on the direction of movement, upward mobility, or social ascent, and downward mobility, or social descent, are distinguished. Thus, promotion, rank and demotion respectively show these types of vertical social mobility. Both types manifest themselves in economic, political and professional mobility, which represents another option for structuring social mobility. Vertical upward mobility can be shown in this case as a person acquiring property, being elected as a deputy, or obtaining a higher position.

In addition, social mobility can be group (an individual moves down or up the social ladder with his group) and individual (when he does this independently of others).

Factors of group mobility: social revolutions, foreign interventions, civil wars, military coups, changes in political regimes, entry into force of a new constitution, economic crisis.

Factors of individual mobility: social status of the family, level of education, nationality, physical abilities, intellectual abilities, place of residence, advantageous marriage.

Society cannot help but regulate social mobility, so P.A. Sorokin, considering vertical mobility in his works, identifies the so-called “social circulation channels.”

As such he analyzes the army, the church, government groups, political organizations and political parties, schools, professional organizations, the family, etc. So, characterizing the school in this regard, P.A. Sorokin notes: “In a society where schools are available to all its members, the school system represents a “social elevator” moving from the very bottom of society to the very top. In a society where privileged schools are only available upper strata population, the school system is an elevator that moves only on the upper floors of a public building, transporting up and down only the residents of the upper floors. However, even in such societies, some individuals from the lower strata still managed to get into this school elevator and, thanks to it, rise to the top” [Cit. from: 2, p. 37].

There are two ways to study social mobility and they are associated with the analysis of intragenerational and intergenerational mobility.

In the first case we're talking about about studying the careers of people, and in the second - about changing or maintaining the social status of children in relation to their parents. The study of intergenerational mobility allows us to imagine the degree to which social inequality is consolidated in a particular society.

Thus, we can draw the following conclusions that the nature of social mobility in society is inextricably linked with the movement of a person from one social stratum to another.

Sociologists have identified the corresponding types of social mobility. These classifications are based on one or another defining classification feature.

Social mobility- a change by an individual or group in the place occupied in the social structure, moving from one social stratum (class, group) to another (vertical mobility) or within the same social stratum (horizontal mobility).

Social mobility refers to any transition of an individual or social group from one social position to another.

Social mobility is the possibility of changing a social stratum. Social mobility can be high or low. An example of high social mobility is the United States of America, and an example of low social mobility is India. The concept of social mobility is close in meaning to the concept of a social elevator.

Sharply limited in a caste and class society, social mobility increases significantly in an industrial society.

Types of social mobility:

1) Intergenerational mobility.

Intergenerational mobility involves children achieving a higher social position or falling to a lower level than their parents. Example: a worker's son becomes a professor.

2) Intragenerational mobility.

Intragenerational mobility occurs when the same individual changes social positions several times throughout his life. Otherwise it is called a social career. Example: a turner becomes an engineer, and then a workshop manager, a plant director, and a minister.

Types of social mobility:

1) Vertical mobility.

Vertical mobility - a person’s advancement through career ladder up or down.

Upward mobility - social rise, upward movement (For example: promotion).

Downward mobility - social descent, downward movement (For example: demotion).

2) Horizontal mobility.

Horizontal mobility is the transition of an individual from one social group to another, located at the same level (example: moving from an Orthodox to a Catholic religious group, from one citizenship to another).

A type of horizontal mobility is geographic mobility. It does not imply a change in status or group, but a movement from one place to another while maintaining the same status.

An example is international and interregional tourism, moving from city to village and back.

If a change of location is added to a change of status, then geographic mobility turns into migration.

If a villager came to the city to visit relatives, then this is geographical mobility. If he moved to the city for permanent residence and found work here, then this is already migration. He changed his profession.

Social mobility can be classified according to other criteria. So, for example, they distinguish:

Individual mobility, when movements down, up or horizontally occur in one person independently of others,

Group mobility, when movements occur collectively, for example, after a social revolution, the old class cedes its dominant position to the new class.

Social mobility is influenced by the following factors:

1) Level of economic development.

Thus, during periods of economic depression, the number of high-status positions decreases, and low-status positions expand, so downward mobility dominates; on the contrary, during periods of active economic development Many new high-status positions appear, and the demand for workers to fill them increases, which provokes upward mobility.

2) Historical type of stratification.

If caste and estate societies, that is, closed societies where most statuses are ascribed, limit social mobility, imposing serious restrictions on any change in status, then in open societies, where individual merits and achieved status are valued, the level of social mobility is high.

3) Demographic factors. These include: gender, age, birth rate, mortality rate, marriage rate, divorce rate.

In general, young people and men are more mobile than older people and women. Young people are more likely to have professional mobility, adults – economic mobility, and older people – political mobility. Where the birth rate is high, the population is younger and therefore more mobile, and vice versa. Moreover, the birth rate is not equally distributed across classes. The lower classes tend to have more children, and the upper classes fewer. There is a pattern: the higher a person climbs the social ladder, the fewer children he has. Even if every son of a representative of the prestigious strata follows in the footsteps of his father, voids will still form at the upper steps of the social pyramid, which are filled by people from the lower classes. Professionals (doctors, lawyers, etc.) and skilled employees also do not have enough children to fill their jobs in the next generation. It is not difficult to imagine the direction in which social mobility should take place in modern society.

4) Place of residence.

Scientists have actually identified a direct relationship between the size of a settlement and the scale of professional achievements. However, it also turned out that rural youth who move to the city achieve a higher position in comparison with their fathers than native city dwellers do in comparison with theirs.

5) Migration processes.

Immigrants who come to a country from other countries occupy lower positions in the social structure, displacing or hastening the upward mobility of native residents. The same effect is created by migration to cities from rural areas.

6) Social status families.

Data from sociologists different countries indicate that people from the lower middle class, that is, white collar workers, and the upper layer of the working class, that is, blue collar workers, most rarely inherited their fathers' professions and were highly mobile. In contrast, upper-class and professional people were more likely to inherit their parents' occupations.

7) Level of education.

The higher the level of education, the greater the chances of moving up the social ladder. A fact has been discovered in the United States: a well-educated son of a working man has as much chance of advancement as a poorly educated son of the middle class, although the latter may be helped by his parents.

8) Nationality.

Representatives of the dominant nation, as a rule, move up the social ladder more easily and more often occupy high positions in society than representatives of smaller nations.

9) Physical and mental abilities.

10) Personal qualities(high level of motivation, initiative, ambition, communication skills, etc.).