European traditions. Economy and material culture of European peoples

The ringing of bells on Christmastide came to us from winter pagan holidays.

When the Earth was cold, it was believed that the sun died and the evil spirit was very strong. To drive out an evil spirit, you had to make a lot of noise. The Christmas tradition of ringing bells, singing and shouting at the same time has survived to this day. At Christmas time, bells ring in churches all over the world. But not to drive out evil spirits. In this way people welcome the coming of Christ. In Scandinavia, the ringing of bells signifies the end of work and the beginning of a holiday; in England, the ringing of bells at the funeral of the devil and the greeting of Christ.

A Christmas tree for birds is a Scandinavian tradition. People try to share their joy on Christmas Day with other living beings.

Directly on Christmas Day or the day before, seeds or crumbs of bread are brought out to the birds. This is a sign that the new year will be successful. Celebrating outside adds to the fun of celebrating inside.

Playing Christmas carols on wind instruments is one of the delightfully boisterous traditions of Christmas. It probably came from paganism, because... To drive out evil spirits it was necessary to make noise. Currently it is followed in Germany and Scandinavia. A musical quartet performs four Christmas carols near a bell tower or church.

Christmas carols end with a joyful chime, signaling the beginning of Christmas.

Light was an important component of pagan winter holidays. With the help of candles and fires they drove out the forces of darkness and cold. Wax candles were distributed to the Romans on the holiday of Saturnalia. In Christianity, candles are considered an additional symbol of the importance of Jesus as the Light of the world.

In Victorian England, merchants gave candles to their regular customers every year.

In many countries, Christmas candles signify the victory of light over darkness.

The candles on the tree of heaven gave birth to our all-loved Christmas tree.

In Scandinavian countries and Germany, on December 24th, Santa Claus knocks on the door, but in England and America his visit is secret. Santa Claus supposedly enters the house through the chimney.

In 1843, the Englishman Horsley drew the first Christmas card. 1000 copies of the postcard were sold that year in London. Publisher Louis Prang popularized Christmas cards in 1875. He held a nationwide competition in America for the best Christmas card design.

Improvements in the postal system and cheaper postage made it possible to send Christmas cards to many friends all over the world.

The first Christmas carol is believed to have appeared in the 4th century AD, but it was a bit dark. Lighter, more joyful Christmas carols emerged in Renaissance Italy. They were already beginning to live up to their name (Christmas carols - carols (English) - from the French "caroler" - dance to the ringing).

Saint Nicholas is traditionally considered the giver of gifts. In Rome there was a tradition of giving gifts to children on the occasion of Saturnalia. The gift giver can be Jesus himself, Santa Claus, Befana (Italian female Santa Claus), Christmas gnomes, and various saints. According to an old Finnish tradition, gifts are distributed around homes by an invisible man.

It is believed that the first undecorated Christmas trees appeared in Germany in the 8th century. The first mention of spruce is associated with the monk Saint Boniface. Boniface read a sermon about Christmas to the Druids. To convince the idolaters that the oak was not a sacred and inviolable tree, he cut down one of the oaks. When the felled oak fell, it knocked down all the trees in its path except the young spruce. Boniface presented the survival of the spruce as a miracle and exclaimed: “Let this tree be the tree of Christ.”

Later, Christmas in Germany was celebrated by planting young trees.

A German source dating back to 1561 states that at Christmas time a house can only have one Christmas tree. In the 17th century, the Christmas tree was already a common attribute of Christmas in Germany and Scandinavian countries. At that time, the Christmas tree was decorated with figures and flowers cut out of colored paper, apples, waffles, gilded items, and sugar.

The tradition of decorating a Christmas tree is associated with the tree of paradise, hung with apples.

The success of the Christmas tree in Protestant countries was even greater thanks to the legend that Martin Luther himself was the first to light candles on the Christmas tree. One evening he was walking home, writing a sermon. The brilliance of the stars twinkling among the fir trees filled him with awe.

To show this magnificent picture to the family, he placed a Christmas tree in the main room, attached candles to its branches and lit them.

The Christmas tree owes its popularity in England to the German Prince Albert, husband of Queen Victoria. In the 17th century, German immigrants brought the Christmas tree tradition to America.

The first street Christmas trees with electric garlands appeared in Finland in 1906.

Every year at Christmas time a carol festival is held in Wales.

Choirs across the country are vying to be chosen as the official Christmas carol. These church choirs travel through towns and cities across Wales singing Christmas carols from both past and present.

The tradition of choosing a national Christmas carol began in the 10th century.

The first guest is the first person to enter the house and “let in” Christmas (in some countries this tradition refers not to Christmas, but to the New Year). Sometimes such a person is even specially hired to ensure that everything is done properly, since there is a superstition associated with the first guest. The first guest should hold a spruce branch in his hand. He enters the front door, walks through the house, and exits through the back door. He is presented with bread and salt or some small gift as a symbol of hospitality. The first guest must be a dark-haired man. If the first guest is a woman, this is a bad omen.

Holly is an evergreen shrub with red poisonous berries, dark green foliage and thorns. The brightness of this plant made it a natural symbol of the rebirth of life in the winter whiteness of northern Europe. Holly is believed to drive away the winter cold and evil spirits. In England, holly with thorns is called "he", without thorns - "she". Which holly (with or without thorns) was brought into the house first on Christmas Day determines who will run the household in the coming year.

Before the advent of the Christmas tree in the mid-nineteenth century, England had what was called the “kissing branch.” It was in the shape of a double ring, decorated with garlands, green branches, holly, ivy, apples, pears, lighted candles and mistletoe. If a girl accidentally found herself under this branch, she was allowed to kiss her.

In the past, one of the main dangers during Christmas celebrations was Christmas candles. Therefore, buckets of water were kept in the living rooms in case of fire. The idea to use electric garlands instead of wax candles belongs to the English telephone operator Ralph Morris. By that time, strings of electric light bulbs were already being used in telephone switchboards; Morris only had the idea to hang them on the Christmas tree.

The ancient Druids considered mistletoe a sacred plant, a symbol of eternal life. The Romans valued it as a symbol of peace. Kissing under the mistletoe is also a Roman tradition.

The first Christmas trees were decorated with fresh flowers and fruits. Later sweets, nuts and other foods were added. Then - Christmas candles.

Such a load was certainly too heavy for the tree. German glassblowers began producing hollow glass Christmas tree decorations to replace fruit and other heavy decorations.

The first plum puddings were made in the 17th century. The pudding was prepared in large copper cauldrons several weeks before Christmas by the whole family. During preparation, each family member made a wish. Four items were placed in the pudding: a coin, a thimble, a button and a ring. Later, when the pudding was eaten, each item found in the pudding had its own meaning. The coin meant wealth in the new year, the button meant single life, the thimble for a girl meant unmarried life, and the ring meant marriage.

Before the advent of the Christmas tree, the Christmas pyramid was considered the main Christmas decoration in Germany and northern Europe. It was a wooden structure in the shape of a pyramid, hung with vegetation and decorations. Gifts or sweets were placed on the shelves of the pyramid. With the growing popularity of the Christmas tree, the functions of the Christmas pyramid were transferred to the Christmas tree.

The Christmas log must be cut down by the head of the family, and not bought from someone. It should burn in the fireplace along with the remains of last year's Christmas log. The log must burn all twelve days of Christmas. There is a superstition that if a person sees his shadow cast from a fireplace where a log is burning, without his head, he will die the following year. The ashes of the Christmas log heal illnesses and protect the home from lightning strikes.

In the Middle Ages, religious holidays were virtually the only holidays. Therefore, people sought to extend these holidays as long as possible. Over time, Christmas instead of one day turned into 12 - from Christmas to Epiphany. In wealthy families, it was customary to give each other gifts on each of the twelve days. This made the Christmas carol "The Twelve Days of Christmas" very popular. Presumably the appearance of this hymn dates back to the 16th century.

In England The most enjoyable part of the Christmas celebration is the festive family dinner on December 25, which is preceded by a church service. The centerpiece of the Christmas table in Britain is a roast turkey, previously stuffed with a mixture of bread crumbs and spices or chestnuts. A special redcurrant or cranberry sauce is prepared for the bird. As a complement to the Christmas feast, ham, bacon, small sausages and various vegetables (boiled or baked) are served. Well, the favorite dessert is, of course, Christmas pudding - a steamed cake made from dense dough with dried fruits. Before serving, the pudding is doused with cognac and set on fire - it looks very impressive!

Christmas is a great holiday established in memory of the birth of Jesus Christ in Bethlehem. Christmas is one of the most important Christian holidays, a public holiday in more than 100 countries around the world.

The first information about Christians celebrating Christmas dates back to the 4th century. The question of the real date of birth of Jesus Christ is controversial and ambiguously resolved among church authors. Perhaps the choice of December 25 is connected with the pagan solar holiday of the “Birth of the Invincible Sun” that fell on this day, which was filled with new content with the adoption of Christianity in Rome.

According to one of modern hypotheses, the choice of the date of Christmas occurred due to the simultaneous celebration by early Christians of the Incarnation (the conception of Christ) and Easter; Accordingly, as a result of adding 9 months to this date (March 25), Christmas fell on the winter solstice.

The Feast of the Nativity of Christ has five days of pre-celebration (from December 20 to 24) and six days of post-celebration. On the eve or on the eve of the holiday (December 24), a particularly strict fast is observed, called Christmas Eve, since on this day wheat or barley grains boiled with honey are eaten. According to tradition, the Christmas Eve fast ends with the appearance of the first evening star in the sky. On the eve of the holiday, Old Testament prophecies and events related to the Nativity of the Savior are remembered.

Christmas services are performed three times: at midnight, at dawn and during the day, which symbolizes the Nativity of Christ in the bosom of God the Father, in the womb of the Mother of God and in the soul of every Christian.

In the 13th century, during the time of St. Francis of Assisi, the custom arose of displaying in churches for worship a manger in which a figurine of the Infant Jesus was placed. Over time, mangers began to be placed not only in the temple, but also in homes before Christmas. Homemade santons - models in glass boxes depict a grotto, the baby Jesus lies in a manger, next to the Mother of God, Joseph, an angel, shepherds who came to worship, as well as animals - a bull, a donkey. Entire scenes from folk life are also depicted: peasants in folk costumes, etc. are placed next to the holy family.

Church and folk customs are harmoniously intertwined in the celebration of Christmas. In Catholic countries the custom is well known caroling- visiting the homes of children and youth with songs and good wishes. In return, the carolers receive gifts: sausage, roasted chestnuts, fruits, eggs, pies, sweets, etc. Stingy owners are ridiculed and threatened with troubles. The processions involve various masks dressed in animal skins; this action is accompanied by noisy fun. This custom was repeatedly condemned by church authorities as pagan, and gradually they began to go with carols only to relatives, neighbors and close friends.

The remnants of the pagan cult of the sun at Christmas time are evidenced by the tradition of lighting a ritual fire in the hearth - "Christmas log". The log was solemnly, observing various ceremonies, brought into the house, set on fire, while simultaneously saying a prayer and carving a cross on it (an attempt to reconcile pagan rite With Christian religion). They sprinkled the log with grain, poured honey, wine and oil on it, put pieces of food on it, addressed it as a living being, and raised glasses of wine in its honor.

On the days of Christmas celebration, a custom has been established to break "Christmas bread"- special unleavened wafers consecrated in churches during Advent - and eat it both before the festive meal and during greetings and congratulations to each other on the holiday.

A characteristic element of the Christmas holiday is the custom of installing in houses decorated spruce tree. This pagan tradition originated among the Germanic peoples, in whose rituals the spruce was a symbol of life and fertility. With the spread of Christianity among the peoples of Central and Northern Europe, the spruce tree decorated with multi-colored balls acquired new symbolism: it began to be installed in homes on December 24, as a symbol of the tree of paradise with abundant fruits.

Christmas customs and traditions in Great Britain

At Christmas, all the windows of rural houses are lit with candles in Great Britain, so among the locals the night before Christmas is called "night of candles". In England today, on Christmas Eve, instead of the traditional Yule log, a thick Christmas candle is lit. In Wales, lit candles decorated not only private houses in rural areas, but also rural churches and chapels on Christmas Day. Candles to decorate the church were made and given to the priest by the residents of the parish.

In many villages, shortly before the holiday, women organized competitions for the best decoration of Christmas candles. These decorations were made from strips of colored paper, foil, gold and silver threads, bright ribbons, etc. In some areas of Wales, with the same decorated and lit candles in their hands, parish residents went to morning mass, which began at 2-3 am. Many similar candles were lit on this night in private homes.

Since the Middle Ages, the church began to use old rituals of dressing up in order to give people more vivid impressions of biblical stories. Thus arose "mysteries"- dramatic performances of such religious scenes as the Annunciation, the visit of the infant Christ by the three wise men of the East, etc. Participants in dramatic versions of biblical stories were usually masked or with their faces covered with a scarf, like the performers of ancient pagan rituals. Of the performances of this kind, the dramatic pantomime game about St. was especially widespread among the English. George and the Dragon, widely known in many other countries.

ABOUT masquerades and pantomimes at Christmas there is information already from the 14th-15th centuries. Thus, one of the sources reports that in 1377 a Christmas pantomime was organized at the Scottish royal court to amuse little Prince Richard. In the treasury registers of Scotland in the 15th century. The funds spent on organizing court masquerades for Christmas are often listed.

Another one was associated with the organization of masquerades. interesting custom in Britain: on the 12 days of Christmastide, in each palace or castle, the manager of the entire celebration, called in England "Lord of Disorder"(Lord Misrule), and in Scotland - "imaginary abbot"(Abbot of Mock). The Lord of Disorder was the one who could joke well, organize various entertainments, and carnivals. He himself selected his retinue, the members of which were dressed in bright dress, decorated with ribbons and bells.

In Scotland, the retinue of the “imaginary abbot” included characters typical of folk processions of mummers, such as Hobbie-horse - a guy portraying a horse. Such a noisy company and especially its leader were allowed to do whatever they wanted - break into any houses to play some kind of joke on their inhabitants, arrange games, dances and other entertainment. This custom was banned by Henry VIII.

In many villages in Scotland, on Christmas Day, men and young men, led by bagpipers and accompanied by many people, went outside the village and played football, bowls on some lawn, and organized various sports competitions: running, hammer throwing exercises, etc. Winner for all games he received a beret decorated with feathers and ribbons; After the competition, the youth sang and danced, and in the evening they returned to the village with the winner at their head. In the evening, the winner of the competition presided over the ball.

All these old traditional customs were attacked with great force by the new Protestant Church in the 17th century. The Christmas holiday was especially persecuted in Puritan Scotland. Every pagan rite and custom, even the most innocent, was mercilessly cursed by the church. Thus, according to the records of a church session in 1574, several people were accused of playing, dancing and singing Christmas songs on this holiday.

Even baking Christmas bread was considered a crime by the clergy of the Protestant Church. In December 1583, Glasgow bakers were asked to name the names of those for whom they baked Christmas bread. In 1605, five people were summoned to court in Aberdeen for walking around the city wearing masks and dancing on Christmas Day. Finally, in 1644, the celebration of Christmas was banned throughout England by a special act of parliament.

After such persecutions in Scotland, the celebration of Christmas never again reached its former popularity; only a few rituals were preserved, most of them began to coincide with the New Year. And currently, December 24-25 are working days there, and the New Year is considered a holiday - January 1-2.

In England already at the end of the 17th century. Christmas began to be celebrated again, but throughout XIX century the rituals that accompanied it changed, and by the beginning of the 20th century. From a major social event for the entire community, Christmas became a purely family holiday, only some of its old customs have survived to this day. For example, the custom of exchanging gifts on Christmas Day is observed everywhere among the British. With the introduction of Christianity, this custom was associated with the bringing of gifts to the baby Jesus by three magicians of the East. In memory of this, gifts are given primarily to children.

A kind old gentleman delivers gifts to children Santa Claus, red-cheeked, with a long white beard, dressed in a red fur coat and a tall red hat. Some identify Santa Claus with the creatures of the underworld - gnomes, which, in their opinion, confirms his appearance. Usually, at Christmas, not only children, but also adults receive gifts; before dinner, they are presented to everyone by the youngest member of the family.

Since the 19th century it has become a custom to exchange greeting cards- instead of the once obligatory personal congratulations on the holiday. In 1843, the first Christmas card was printed in the printing house, and soon their production became a special branch of printing production. In the design of postcards, motifs of old traditional Christmas customs are often found: the robin, which has been around since the 18th century. often replaces the wren in rituals, branches of eternal greenery - holly, ivy, mistletoe, and on Scottish postcards an image of a sprig of heather intertwined with tartan ribbons - national symbol Scotland. Such cards are sent in large numbers at Christmas time to Scottish emigrants all over the world as a reminder of the homeland they left behind.

Christmas lunch and today includes such traditional dishes as stuffed turkey (among the British) or roast goose (in Wales, Ireland) and the inevitable plum pudding. The old custom of decorating the house for Christmas with branches of eternal greenery - ivy, holly, etc. is still preserved. As before, a sprig of mistletoe is strengthened above the door. According to custom, once a year, on Christmas Eve, men have the right to kiss any girl who stops under a decoration made from this plant. This doesn’t happen often, and in order not to waste time, one man decided to decorate a mirror with amela branches so that he could kiss all the girls who stopped to admire themselves.

Apparently, a late transformation of the custom of decorating houses with eternal greenery was
Christmas tree, as a symbol of undying nature. The custom of decorating spruce appeared in England relatively recently, in the middle of the 19th century, and was brought here from Germany. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert had their first Christmas tree for their children in Windsor, and the fashion quickly spread. Nowadays, in almost every English home, a Christmas tree is decorated with colorful shiny toys and sweets, and a Christmas fairy or a large silver star is usually placed on top of it. During the Second World War, a huge spruce tree was first smuggled from occupied Norway to England, where the Norwegian king and government were located at that time, and installed in Trafalgar Square. From now on, such a spruce is given annually by the city of Oslo to the British capital, and it is installed on the same square. It is decorated with Christmas tree decorations and multi-colored light bulbs.

Finally, Christmas pantomimes and masquerade balls, organized in all theaters and concert halls on Christmastide, originate from the once widespread processions of mummers and dramatic performances. The second day of Christmas in the church calendar is dedicated to St. Stephen. In England this day is called boxing day(Boxing day). This name comes from the custom of installing special piggy banks in churches before Christmas, where offerings for the poor were placed.

On St. Stephen, the pastor distributed the collected money among his parishioners. Later, the boxes were no longer installed in the church, but the poor people of the parish gathered in groups on St. Stefan and his piggy bank went around houses, receiving small coins. Such groups consisted of journeymen, students, messengers, etc. And now the tradition of giving small sums of money to letter carriers, messengers and servants on this day has still been preserved.

In England and Scotland, a significant part of the Christmas holiday is ritual food- dinner on Christmas Eve and lunch on the first day of Christmas. The English and Scottish nobility, descended from the Scandinavians or Normans, had a boar's head as a traditional Christmas dish throughout the Middle Ages.

However, among the Celtic peoples this dish never appeared on festive tables. Perhaps the reason for this was the ban on eating pork that existed in ancient times among the Celts. This prohibition continued for a long time in some remote corners of the Highlands.

In Scotland, Ireland and Wales, a piece of roast beef or goat was usually prepared for Christmas dinner - Yule bull or Yule goat. But gradually roasted (in Ireland, Wales) or smoked (in Scotland) goose became a traditional meat dish for Christmas. It remains the main Christmas dish today in Wales and Scotland (Highland). In England since the 18th century. Fried or stuffed turkey took its place.

Had ritual significance drinks and foods made from cereals. In Aberdeenshire and the north-east of Scotland it was customary to place a large cup of a special Christmas drink called sowans on the table on Christmas Eve. It was prepared from fermented barley grain, with the addition of honey and cream. The drink was poured into small wooden cups, at the bottom of which some object was placed: if the drinker saw a ring at the bottom - this is for a wedding, a coin - for wealth, a button - for celibacy, etc.

For many centuries, all residents of the British Isles had a special food for Christmas. plum porridge oatmeal(plum-porridge), cooked in meat broth, bread crumbs, raisins, almonds, prunes and honey were also added to it and served very hot. During the 18th century. Plum Porridge is gradually being replaced plum-pudding-dingom(plum-pudding), and by the middle of the 19th century. the latter becomes the most important dish of the Christmas table. Plum pudding is made from bread crumbs with the addition of various spices and fruits; before serving, it is doused with rum and lit. It is still a custom to hide small silver coins and decorations in the Christmas pudding - “for good luck”.

In the past, the Scots, Irish and Welsh had a custom of baking for Christmas. special bread. It was supposed to be baked only on Christmas Eve, between sunset and sunrise. Christmas bread was a large round cake, on which a cross was cut out with a knife before baking. They also baked Christmas oatcakes - round, with jagged edges and a hole in the middle; judging by their shape, they were supposed to symbolize the sun. In the Highlands it was customary to invite every passerby into the house at Christmas. The guest was offered a piece of this flatbread with cheese and a sip of alcohol.

In all wealthy houses, baking was carried out and beer was brewed not only for themselves, but also for distribution to the poor, watchmen, workers, and shepherds. On the eve of Christmas Eve, on the so-called "small Christmas Eve"(Swedish - lille ju-lafton, Norwegian - julaften, Danish - ju-leaften), rich alms were distributed, especially in the priests' houses, to every house included in the parish. Gifts consisted of bread, meat, porridge, beer, and candles.

On Christmas Eve, before sunset, all the villagers gathered in the church. Upon returning home, everyone sat down to a festive treat. With Christmas comes everyone's celebration; There is not a single poor house where this event is not celebrated. The smallest loaf of bread is always kept in a hiding place from one Christmas to another or even longer. There have often been cases where an 80-90 year old woman kept a loaf of bread baked in her youth.

And now in the UK they are still preparing for the New Year special traditional dishes. For breakfast they usually serve oatcakes, pudding, a special type of cheese - Kebben, for lunch - roast goose or steak, pie, apples baked in dough. New Year's oatcakes among the Celtic peoples had a special shape - round with a hole in the middle. We tried not to break them during baking, as this would be a bad omen.

The table decoration is christmas cake. According to an old recipe, it should be stuffed with the following items that supposedly predict fortune for the coming year: a ring for a wedding, a coin for wealth, a small horseshoe for good luck.

Currently, in Scotland, a large round sand cake is baked for the New Year's table, with tucks along the edges, decorated with almonds, nuts, sweets, sugar and marzipan figures boiled in sugar. Every year a huge number of such cakes are sent to all corners globe Scots in exile. They are usually decorated with national emblems - heather, Scottish cross, arms crossed over the sea, mountains, etc.

You will be welcomed in the UK Christmas carols, church mass and pudding and turkey, typical of English cuisine. On Christmas Eve, crowds of people gather in Trafalgar Square, at the main Christmas tree in England, where charitable organizations organize performances for adults and children with the singing of carols. Much the same thing happens in Leicester Square, where a fun fair takes place. Residents and tourists can enjoy carnivals and festivities in Coven Garden, warm up at the traditional Christmas Peter Pan Trophy swimming competition, and then relax in Hyde Park and the Serpentine Pond.

Edinburgh gets especially crowded on New Year's Eve on Princes Street. New Year's services are going on in churches. Fruit and confectionery shops are open all night. The arrival of the New Year is heralded by the ringing of bells, horns and sirens from factories. After 12 o'clock everyone congratulates each other and goes home to the festive tables.

Christmas in England loomed back in October, when most of them sat down at the table at home and, sticking out the tip of their tongues from diligence, wrote Christmas Lists to Father Christmas with a most serious look. The owners of shops in England, don’t be fools, started selling various thematic junk right from that moment... In general, all this is an established age-old Tradition. In the United Kingdom, there are probably more traditions, rituals, signs, quirks, quirks and other things associated with winter festivities than in the rest of Europe. Moreover, there are ancient traditions, and there are relatively young ones, but they have already managed to firmly cement themselves in the depths of the British mentality. Here, for example: from the end of the 19th century, Advent Calendars came to England from Germany. Initially, they had a purely religious “adult” purpose, but soon children began to use them. And now every year, starting from the first of December, the whole of young Britain is “counting down to the Advent”, and the calendars themselves can be crazy: blinking, chocolate, waffle, in the form of Martian heads... For the sake of fairness, we note that most buildings here only begin to be decorated two weeks before Christmas. Trees, many of which still have leaves, are entangled with tinsel (glitters), wires with light bulbs (flicker), ribbons of tartan fabric (curl and rustle) and many others. other manifestations of the British sense of beauty. The lawns in front of houses are usually completely hidden by statues of Father Christmas, wreaths of holly and ivy, and in the windows - so that no one seems too little - they turn on Scandinavian welcome lights! All this, in fact, is called Traditions. Children generally have a good time here. On Christmas Eve in the evening they go to bed after prayers and Christmas stories are read to them. Before that, they always leave mince pie and milk for Father Christmas (and carrots for a certain Rudolph) - otherwise there will be no gifts! , where under the tree, in stockings or in special socks, lies “what they have been waiting for so long.” Around lunchtime (one o’clock in the afternoon), relatives and friends come to the house, everyone kisses, cuddles, gives presents, and enthusiastically discusses what... some nonsense and finally sit down to Christmas dinner. In fact, some holidays the British, with their dull, bland cuisine, somehow manage not to ruin from a gastronomic point of view - Christmas is one of them, they serve “cocktails” here. appetizers of shrimp, then for the main course - turkey in currant sauce, and for dessert - Christmas Pudding or Christmas Pie... But usually it’s much worse! At three o'clock in the afternoon, old Queen Elizabeth is played on TV with a festive speech to the British um... people, then everyone still stares for a while at the box in which they prepared "all the best and funniest", and then, if the family is really correct, they play charades or board games that require ingenuity. The true Home of Christmas and the Cradle of most traditions is undoubtedly London. These days the atmosphere in the metropolis is simply electric. The streets sparkle under the influence of the magic of thousands of magic light bulbs and other decorations. Fresh air cheeks and nose tingle, and the frost transforms the city into the Christmas Wonderland described by Dickens - the British, by the way, love to make this comparison... But with all that, London allows you to experience all the shades of the “holiday atmosphere”. The most luxurious junk is thrown into the windows, choirs of all kinds sing in the corners, in passages and in churches, all drinking and eating establishments offer special menus and some special entertainment, and the streets, theaters (open and closed) and squares are flooded with mass entertainers , pop groups and even clowns.

But, both for our people and for the London people, X-mas is, first and foremost, of course, Phaser Shopping. Despite the general poorly disguised high cost, Christmas sales in London usually do not let you get bored. Officially, sales are announced on the twentieth of December, but it is important to know that a really serious reduction in prices occurs after Christmas, when there is no longer a need for frantic purchasing of gifts from people. The largest discounts are provided by department stores (this year mainly on December 27). The heaviest shopping scene can be seen in the West End and in the Oxford Street area. The most luxurious place - dear to the Russian heart (and the center in general Russian culture in London!) Selfridges. Each time it is somehow thematically decorated according to one particular plan and it is always done, of course, with great taste. In another no less pleasant place, Liberty's (true English fabrics for the production of women's clothing are found here), prices are reduced by up to 50% during the sales period. In addition, the store is located in a 16th-century building and its windows are considered among other windows the most beautiful in London The store named Simpson's is interesting because on all its five floors they sell almost exclusively goods for gentlemen. It is doubtful that anyone other than the British could decide on such strict specialization. Harrod's is considered the flagship of London, and indeed British supermarkets in general - they say there are people who spent several days just looking at its windows... This is where everything your heart desires is really sold! And all - at exorbitant schizophrenic prices. But what's here? What really makes me happy is that “the staff works until the last whim of the last client is satisfied”... The discounts in this store are also “the very best” and in crazy extravagance they reach up to 75%, however, from the standpoint! common sense, these discounts are about the same as if we subtracted 75 cm from the height of a skyscraper... In London, it is customary to start sales on Saturday, but Harrod's announces them half a week later, on Wednesday, without at all doubting its own superiority. And, as they say, on the very first day of the sale, it makes a turnover equal to a month’s. And they’re probably not lying. This is the power of habits and traditions. All stores prepare for the Christmas sale (with the most significant discounts of the year) in advance, from about mid-October. The display cases are populated by angels, snowmen, broods of reindeer and cohorts of Santa Clauses. By the way, keep in mind that you can give anything in the world for Christmas in England, from Adam to Potsdam, depending on your tastes and capabilities. The latest trend is to reduce time and nervous stress during shopping, as well as to manage to pervert and buy something SUCH, SO MUCH that no one dares to call junk! For example, a ticket for a helicopter ride (a whole fashion now). In this regard, the Internet, which distributes such things, is on the tail of traditional shopping centers. For people with lesser quirks, the opportunity to become perverted materializes in a more modest disease - in the choice of 100,000 varieties of holiday wrapping paper... Have you bought gifts? What did they wrap it in? ! And here we are - look - what a cute little piece of paper... etc., etc....

Dear readers! “Like” and “tweet” are the best ways to say “thank you” to an Internet resource:

They try to make the wedding magnificent, but elegant, without vulgarities and unnecessary fuss. Many European wedding traditions are adopted by other countries to make the celebration just as elegant and stylish.

Many beautiful wedding traditions were borrowed from European countries. For people in England, Germany, France, Spain and other countries, marriage is a reverent and romantic event, which is intertwined with many customs and memorable moments.

The essence of the rituals

Among peoples with rich history a whole storehouse of different traditions, signs and superstitions has accumulated, some of which relate specifically to weddings. Whatever the culture of the country, marriage has a special role, and since ancient times there have been special procedures for its preparation and conduct.

Many of the wedding traditions in Europe were forgotten, others were modified, and only a small part has survived to this day in its original state. With the advent of Christianity, the isolated features of peoples began to be forgotten, and general patterns began to appear in the customs of different cultures. This does not mean that people lost their individuality - they only interpreted the same faith.

Now even those wedding rituals in Europe that have been preserved from ancient times can rarely be seen at holidays. Conservative Europeans, too, began to give preference to holding the celebration.

Old customs can only be found in cases where the bride and groom want to pay tribute to their ancestors, and even then such rituals are only a formality and do not carry any sacred meaning.

Most often, the observance of wedding traditions can be found if the future newlyweds decide to organize their wedding in a specific style.

For example, French, and are popular.

Which ones exist and where?

Among all European countries, the richest in customs related to marriage are England, Greece, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Ireland and Sweden. Most often, stylized weddings are organized in accordance with these concepts.

In Greece, there is a wonderful custom of presenting gifts to guests, and they are purchased with money from the groom’s family. Another wedding tradition in Europe is the wedding, which takes place on Sunday, and on Friday they bake bread, showering flour on everyone who wants to receive a little happiness and good luck. Children invited to the celebration are given a special role - they are allowed to jump on the newlyweds’ bed so that they have many strong and healthy children.

In Germany, there is a wonderful custom: when newlyweds get married, they drink a glass of wine together. The groom drinks first, then the bride, after which she throws the glass behind her. If it breaks, the spouses will have a long and happy life. According to another tradition, any of the male guests may try to “steal” the hero of the occasion during the banquet. If he succeeds, he will have as many as three dances with the bride.

Wedding planner

To create an unusual and bright atmosphere at a wedding, in addition to external similarity with the style, you can also adopt some wedding traditions of European countries.

Elena Sokolova

Reader

Most European traditions are aimed at bringing happiness, good luck, financial well-being and healthy children into the married life of young people.

Karina

Many Italian customs are observed to this day. For example, the custom of carrying the bride over the threshold of the family home in his arms originated in this country. The Italians also came up with the name for the honeymoon - back in ancient Rome, newlyweds used honey for 30 days after the wedding to make life together sweet and pleasant.

Interesting! An Italian groom asks his beloved's hand from her mother, not her father. If you are planning a European wedding, you can follow the tradition.

In Spain, despite the ardent nature of its inhabitants, young people who decided to get married were treated strictly. After the engagement, the bride and groom were under constant surveillance; the most they were allowed was to hold hands, and then not in public.

The Spaniards created their own male and female communities, one might say, according to their interests. Then such groups intersected with each other, and the girls could meet the boys, and the main criterion for choosing the second half on both sides was thriftiness.

The Irish are used to celebrating weddings on a royal scale. It is noteworthy that matchmaking in most cases takes place in early January, as lovers try to get married before Maslenitsa. Then Lent begins, and according to the laws of this country it is impossible to have a wedding.

An interesting tradition in Ireland is the “Aitin Gander” ritual. On the appointed day, the groom comes to the house of the bride's parents, where the young man is treated to baked goose. Everyone who is involved in organizing the wedding is invited to the party, right down to the priest, and everyone together discusses pressing issues in preparing the celebration.

Sweden has fairly loose wedding traditions. Girls and boys met at dances on weekends, after which the latter accompanied their chosen ones home and did not hesitate to stay overnight. Because of this, weddings often took place when the bride was already pregnant, or even after the birth of the child. It is interesting that society did not condemn this, but, on the contrary, supported it, because it served as proof that the girl was healthy and capable of giving her husband heirs.

Interesting! Find out what they are. This could be a nightmare...

Other countries

There are no less interesting and funny traditions in other European countries. If desired, such customs can be observed on own wedding to surprise guests and make the celebration individual.

For example, there are the following traditions associated with marriage.

Such customs do not bring anything bad, so if you want to bring them to life, you can safely experiment.

Intersections with Russian customs

In every culture, a wedding will acquire new details and customs borrowed from other peoples. The most striking confirmation of this is that it is believed that the unmarried girl who catches him will be the next to marry.

Previously, there was no such tradition in Rus', although it was similar in meaning. All the girls who had not yet started a family danced around the newlywed, and she closed her eyes and spun in the opposite direction. Whoever she points to when she stops will be the one she will marry next. And by the way, Russian girls never gave the bouquet to anyone, keeping it in the family for good luck.

Interestingly, in many European countries and in Russia there is a similar The parents of the newlyweds bring fire from their home to help the newlyweds light their own. In the modern interpretation, the hearth is replaced with ordinary candles, since not everyone even has a fireplace.

If a European wedding is being organized, traditions and customs make it possible to make the celebration elegant and romantic. Many couples strive to plan their wedding in the Western style, avoiding vulgar ransoms, vulgar competitions and other inappropriate events. Such customs will not only diversify the celebration, but also make it memorable for guests.

Many tourists, deciding to go on vacation to a new European country, are completely unaware that customs and traditions in Europe are fundamentally different from Russian standards. Each country, for example, has its own rules of etiquette and violating them can, at a minimum, make a tourist blush for his behavior, so it is better to get acquainted with the traditions of the peoples of Europe before going on a trip.

In this article I would like to dwell on etiquette in Europe, as well as on wedding and culinary traditions of the Old World.

The concept of etiquette came into widespread use in the 17th century. During the reign of the French king Louis XIV, before one of their receptions, all guests were given cards in which some rules of conduct at this very reception were written. It was etiquette, as a tradition of Western Europe, that quickly spread to other countries of the continent, and then throughout the world.

In Western European countries, etiquette developed under the great influence of traditional customs. Various layers of society, prejudices and superstitions, and religious rituals determined the development of etiquette in those days.

Currently, many believe that modern etiquette has inherited only the best of the customs and traditions of Europe, passed on from generation to generation. And if some norms of behavior have remained unchanged to this day, then there is probably no need to argue with folk wisdom.

However, we should not forget that some requirements regarding etiquette are quite conditional and directly depend on time, place and circumstances.

For example, we can remember that just a few centuries ago a man could carry a sword, dagger or saber on his left side, and if a woman walked next to him, then she naturally walked to his right so as not to touch the weapon. Now there are no such obstacles (except perhaps in families where the man is a military man), but the tradition has been preserved.

In modern Europe, over a long period of its development, the traditions and customs of countries have mixed with each other. This largely applies to the preparation and holding of wedding celebrations.

Some of the wedding traditions of Europe are well known to the residents of Russia, but others can become a real revelation for us.

For example, in Hungary, the bride must take off her shoes and place them in the middle of the room, and whoever wants to invite her to dance must throw coins into the shoes. The same custom is common at weddings in Portugal.

At weddings in Romania, the newlyweds are showered with millet, nuts or rose petals.

A bride in Slovakia must give her chosen one a ring and a silk shirt embroidered with gold threads. And the groom in return must give her a silver ring, fur hat, rosary and chastity belt.

In Norway, the bride and groom always plant two Christmas trees, and in Switzerland - a pine tree.

At German weddings, before the ceremony, friends and relatives of the bride break dishes near her house, and French newlyweds drink wine from a goblet as a sign of happiness and love.

A festive banquet in Holland is usually held before the wedding ceremony.

English brides pin a horseshoe or mace of happiness on their wedding dress.

The heads of brides in Finland must be decorated with a crown.

Before the wedding in Sweden, the bride puts two coins into her shoes that her parents gave her - her mother was gold, and her father was silver.

Each such wedding tradition in European countries is unique, and the best part is that even after many years they do not lose relevance and live in the memory of modern Europeans.

Europe's culinary traditions are not the oldest in the world, but the innate entrepreneurship and curiosity of its people have made the continent's cuisine extremely complex and varied.

Culinary traditions of the peoples of Europe are amazing recipes national dishes different countries. This is rather a collective concept, because each country can be proud of its own culinary characteristics and traditions.

In Central Europe, Polish and Hungarian dishes predominate. The signature recipes are the preparation of goulash, strudels, vegetable soup with dill, etc.

Eastern European dishes are extremely varied. The customs of cooking have been passed down to modern residents from the nomads who settled these lands many centuries ago.

In Western Europe, French cuisine is distinguished, whose chefs know a lot about vegetables and good wine. Neighbors of the French, the Germans, cannot imagine their life without potatoes, meat and beer.

The cuisine of Northern Europe is extremely diverse. From beer with chips or fish to creme brulee and chocolate fudge.

Particularly noteworthy are the recipes for duck in orange sauce and chicken huntsman.

A distinctive feature of Southern European cuisine is the addition of wine to many dishes, which is also required to be served on the table before the meal.

In conclusion, the article should be noted that, starting from the second half of the 20th century, the concept arose in Europe popular culture– a characteristic phenomenon in the 20th century, which was caused by mass consumption and production.

Mass culture rapidly embraced different spheres of life, and was most fully manifested in the youth subculture (for example, rock music, etc.).

It has noticeably strengthened thanks to the media, increased literacy levels and the development of information technology.

For more than two thousand years, on one day a year, greetings have been heard: “Christ is Risen! Truly Risen!” Such exclamations are heard on Easter - the favorite and main Christian holiday, symbolizing victory over death, when light replaces darkness. It is celebrated in the spring, after the first flowers appear, which decorate homes and temples, rooms and festive tables. And each country has its own Easter traditions, which we will get acquainted with in more detail.

Easter traditions in Western and Central Europe

England. For many Britons, Easter is a more significant and vibrant religious holiday than Christmas, and even schools are closed for two weeks for spring break. Temples are decorated with decorated eggs, blooming daffodils and willow branches. Residents of Great Britain attend the Easter service in the evening, ending after midnight, and then rejoice at the end of Lent and congratulate others on the beginning of a new life. After visiting the temple, the British eat Easter cake with their families.

Germany. Easter is preceded by Good Friday, and most Germans eat fish on this day. On Friday and Saturday, residents of Germany do not have to work, and on Saturday evening in many German cities a grandiose Easter bonfire. This event is very popular, so many locals come to watch the bonfire. Fire symbolizes the end of winter, as well as the burning of all negative feelings. On Sunday morning, almost every family eats breakfast together. On Sunday afternoons they visit relatives and friends, chat and drink tea together.

The day before, parents hide baskets with all kinds of sweets, small gifts and Easter eggs, and then the children look for them in all rooms of the house. It is believed that sweets bring Easter Bunny, and such a character also has pagan roots. At that time, the Germans believed in various gods, including the goddess of spring and fertility, Eostra. In her honor, at the onset of spring, festive events were held, and the main events occurred on the day of the vernal equinox.
Rabbit was identified with Eostra due to fertility, so in the pre-Christian era it was also associated with the arrival of spring. In the 14th century, a legend spread in Germany about the mystical Easter bunny, who hid laid eggs in the garden.

The Germans later brought this legend to the USA, where the tradition of giving marzipan or chocolate sweet bunnies to children subsequently arose, and it subsequently merged with the religious holiday of Easter. Nowadays, in almost all European countries, children are given both colored eggs and sweet rabbits or bunnies.

Another legend is associated with the biblical story of Noah's Ark. So, during the Great Flood, the ark collided with its bottom on the top of Mount Ararat, and a gap appeared in the ship. And the hare closed the hole with his short tail and prevented the ark from sinking in deep waters. This legend about a brave coward is very common among German children, and they are sure that a bunny in a magical clearing in an impenetrable forest is cooking magic herbs in a pot with firefly pollen. And with these herbs he hand-paints each Easter egg.

Belgium. For kids in Belgian cities, competitions are held to find eggs, but the kids don’t have to run to the chicken coop or store with a basket. Parents hide Easter eggs in the yard or garden near the house in advance, and the one who manages to collect the largest “harvest” wins. The Belgians tell the children that the church bells will remain silent until the holiday, since they have left for Rome, and will return at Easter with eggs and a rabbit. The main sweets for children on this day are chocolate eggs and rabbits.

Netherlands. Most Dutch people follow the tradition of celebrating Easter, and the main symbols are colored eggs and the Easter bunny. You can often see funny figures of bunnies in the windows of houses, and without such an element it is impossible to imagine decorating a holiday table, since the Dutch do not bake Easter cakes. Residents of Holland buy colored eggs in stores, and chocolate eggs with various fillings, as well as hollow chocolate figures of a rooster or hare, are very popular.

On Sunday, the Dutch attend church services, where they kiss three times when meeting friends, and festive events are organized for the children. At a children's party, colored eggs are hidden in bushes or grass, and children are very happy when they find them. Families spend Easter days together, going on picnics, or going on bike rides and walks in nature.

Easter traditions in Eastern Europe

Poland. Easter is celebrated here for two days, and all generations of a large family gather at one table. Believing Poles first pray and then sit down to a festive meal, and on the tables you can see sausage and meat, horseradish and eggs, and lighted pasta. The holiday is followed by Wet Monday, when people douse each other with water, symbolizing household profit, good luck and health.

Russia. Orthodox Easter in Russia is characterized by numerous customs that are not directly related to religious legends. This is entertainment and folk games, but the custom of beating eggs, in which several people are involved, stands out especially. So, they hit the eggs twice with their nose, and whoever’s egg hasn’t cracked after that continues the game. Egg rolling is another Easter game. Since children were forbidden to play almost all games during Lent, after a long break, rolling eggs became the first fun for the children.

They set up a tray at a certain angle, along which Easter eggs were rolled onto a blanket, and to win, they had to hit another egg. And the girls played “heaps”, hiding the paint under a layer of sand, and the rest of the participants had to guess where it was. Believers attend church services on Easter and bless Easter cakes, Easter cottage cheese and eggs.

Ukraine. In Ukraine, Easter has merged with family traditions and folk customs over the centuries. After the 40-day fast preceding Easter, the festive table is decorated with flowers, and the main place on it is occupied by colored eggs and Easter cake laid on greenery, and the housewives prepare traditional dishes loved by the family. A special place is occupied by colored decorated eggs, painted with a “pysanka” pattern, as well as “scrobanks” - eggs on which the pattern is scratched with a sharp instrument.

Bulgaria. At Easter, according to the Bulgarian tradition, a lot of colored eggs are laid out around the Easter bread, which are painted only on Thursday, while the sun has not yet risen. On Thursday or Friday, Easter cake decorated with a cross is baked. Like other Orthodox Slavs, Bulgarians clink eggs until one of them cracks, wishing those around them good luck. And the one whose colored egg remains intact the longest is considered the luckiest.

Easter traditions in Scandinavia

Denmark. Danes celebrate Easter widely, but on a smaller scale than Christmas. As in Germany, the main holiday symbol is the Easter Bunny, who brings treats to children, and popular characters also include a lamb and a chicken. Their figures will be made of caramel, sugar or white chocolate. It is customary for the Danes to brew a special type of beer and set the meat table. Some beer makers even display Easter symbols on their cans to create a festive atmosphere. The Danes are preparing for the religious holiday starting on Thursday, and only by Tuesday are they ready to return to work.

Sweden. Easter in Sweden is a less colorful and popular religious holiday than Christmas, but schools celebrate it for more than a week. Teachers and children remember the life of Jesus, his death to atone for sins, and his subsequent resurrection from the dead. For the holiday, Swedes decorate their homes with Easter flower beds in white, green and yellow shades, and the festive table contains the same food as on Christmas days. However, this time more attention is paid to candies and various sweets. All Easter eggs are made of cardboard, and inside such packaging there is candy.

Easter traditions in Southern Europe

Italy. On Easter Sunday, Italians flock to the main square of Rome and wait for the Pope to read a sermon and congratulate them on the bright religious holiday. The main dish on the Italian table is lamb served with fried artichokes, a salad of tomatoes, olives and sweet peppers, as well as a savory pie with cheese and eggs. It is impossible to imagine a festive table without colomba - this is a dish similar to Easter cake, distinguished by a lemon aroma, and it is often covered with almond glaze or almonds. On the second day, temperamental Italians with friends and neighbors flock to picnics.

Greece. Since Orthodoxy is the official religion in Greece, Easter remains the most long-awaited and vibrant holiday, and local residents paint eggs themselves. Greeks come to evening mass with white burning candles, which should be extinguished at midnight. Burning candles in Greece are associated with the resurrection of Christ and life, and light is transmitted from one candle to another. The traditional dish for the Easter meal is magiritsu soup, made from lamb offal, and this dish is usually prepared on Saturday. During the meal, the Greeks uncork retsina - this is wine from last year's harvest.

Picnics and large feasts are usually held outdoors, where the meat of young lambs is roasted over fires. In Thessaloniki, citizens and guests are treated to free refreshments, and sweet churek, bright red Easter eggs, meat and wine are displayed on the tables. Greek dances and songs do not stop until the morning, and schoolchildren's vacation lasts 15 days.

Spain. An integral part of the holiday for the Spaniards is the Easter procession, during which the boys carry ordinary palm branches, and the girls carry branches decorated with sweets, and the priest must bless them. The most interesting is the Easter procession in Seville, and in front of the cathedral in Palma de Mallorca, it is customary to play the Passion of Christ for the holiday. The most terrible action takes place in Girona: townspeople dress in frightening costumes, scaring passers-by, and guests can see skeletons dancing. The entire week before Easter is non-working, since absolutely everyone is preparing for the religious holiday. Every year, Spanish families compete to make the best palm branch, and each branch has intricate weaves, and religious processions take place on the streets of Spanish cities.

South of France. The main Easter entertainment in France is picnics, and friendly groups and families gather near houses in the garden and prepare a variety of omelettes. The French give each other red eggs, and the children play various games with them. From Good Friday until the Resurrection of Christ, all the temple bells are silent, as if mourning the crucifixion of Jesus. The symbol of joy is not at all painted eggs, but ringing bells, and in villages, parents make peculiar nests in trees, from where children must get chocolate eggs. It is also customary to give adults and children chocolate coins to coming year passed comfortably.

on the topic: Calendar customs and rituals of the peoples of Northern Europe

Introduction

The customs of peoples are one of the most important and most constant themes of ethnographic science. Only in modern times did the view arise that customs are not only a matter of idle curiosity, naive surprise or indignation: they can also be the object of serious scientific study. This view was first expressed by writers of the 18th century: Lafitau, Montesquieu, Charles de Brosse and others. Classic ethnographers of the evolutionist trend - Taylor, Lubbock and others - considered the customs of peoples as some classification units with a tendency to independent development, along with elements of material culture , beliefs, etc. English functionalists - Malinovsky, Radcliffe-Brown - saw in customs (“institutions”) an inseparable component of the whole, which they called “culture” or “social system.” Culture in the broad sense of the word is everything that has been created and is being created by humanity, from tools of labor to household items, from habits, customs, the very way of life of people to science and art, morality and philosophy. Nowadays the cultural layer covers almost the entire planet.

“Custom” refers to any established, traditional and more or less generally accepted procedure for performing any social actions, traditional rules of behavior. The term “custom” is close to the concept of “rite” (“ritual”), and in many cases these two concepts are even equivalent. But the concept of “rite” is narrower than the concept of “custom”. Every ritual is a custom, but not every custom is a ritual. For example, wedding or funeral, Yuletide or Maslenitsa customs are established rituals. But there are many in which there is nothing ritual: for example, the custom of shaving the beard, the custom of washing hands before eating, the custom of neighborly mutual assistance, the custom of joint inheritance. The most interesting, but also the most difficult to study, are precisely the customs of the ritual type: those that are expressed in traditional actions performed in an established order and in a certain form. As a rule, these customs and rituals have a certain symbolic meaning, that is, they serve as a “sign” of some idea, some kind of social relationship. The main task of research in such cases becomes to find the meaning that is hidden in this custom-rite. Understanding the meaning of these rituals and finding out their origin is the goal of ethnographic study. Folk customs are extremely diverse, and it is difficult to fit them into any classification system. And even if we take not all customs in general, but only customs-rites, then they turn out to be very diverse and difficult to classify.

In this work we will look at the calendar customs and rituals of the peoples of Europe in the winter. The calendar customs of the peoples of Europe were strongly influenced by the Christian Church with its annual circle of holidays, fasts and memorable days. The Christian faith spread quite quickly throughout Europe. In the 4th century. the Goths, Vandals, Lombards adopted Christianity; in the 5th century Suevi, Franks, Irish Celts; in the 6th century Scots; in the 7th century Anglo-Saxons, Allemanns; in the 8th century Frisians, Saxons, Danes; in the 9th century southern and part of the western Slavs, Swedes; in the 10th century Eastern Slavs (Rus), Poles, Hungarians; in XI, Norwegians, Icelanders; in the 13th century Finns. The adoption of Christianity by individual European nations was by no means a peaceful process. And, of course, the church had a huge influence on the rituals and customs of all residents of European countries. But Christian doctrine has never been united. Gradually accumulating dogmatic, ritual, and canonical differences, which reflected political contradictions, finally led to a formal schism of the churches (1054). This split had incalculable consequences for the whole cultural history European peoples. The influence of one religion or another has affected the traditions of calendar rituals in different ways. One of the goals of the work is to explore the genesis of folk calendar customs and rituals of Western European countries. Also reveal the relationship between the religious-magical and aesthetic (artistic, decorative, entertainment) elements in calendar customs; the historical transition of the first to the second. Find out what customs have survived to this day. It should be emphasized that these rituals are mostly of a folk nature. The church element was introduced into them much later and often did not change the essence of the rituals.

Calendar customs and rituals of the peoples of Northern Europe

Folk customs and rituals are an essential part of the spiritual culture of the people, reflecting their worldview in different periods of historical development. Studying them is very important when studying the processes of integration, adaptation and mutual influence occurring between different peoples, since it is often in traditional rituals that the ethnic tradition of peoples is manifested.

An example of the persistence of such a tradition is the preservation of ancient traditional ritual dishes in the holiday menu of European peoples: Christmas roast goose or turkey, fried pig's head or pork, porridge from various cereals, legumes, chestnuts, nuts, which were previously considered a symbol of abundance.

It is known that many rituals of the winter calendar cycle were associated with superstitions and prejudices characteristic of ancient farmers and cattle breeders in those distant times when the level of development of productive forces was very low. Of course, the original and ancient basis of winter customs and rituals - the underdevelopment of agricultural labor, the dependence of ancient grain growers on the elemental forces of nature - has long ceased to exist. Of course, the primitive magical beliefs that grew on this basis, witchcraft rites of fertility, etc., as well as belief in fortune telling, mantles of all kinds - all this is in the past, and even in the distant past. And the higher the growth of the productive forces in the country, the more intensive the industrialization of agriculture takes place, the more and more the various magical techniques and witchcraft actions aimed at ensuring a prosperous year for the farmer are forgotten.

The fragments of the old agrarian rituals that are still preserved in a survival form here and there either indicate the low cultural level of their performers, in most cases representatives of the older generation, or have already completely lost their magical meaning and turned into entertainment, remaining one of the national traditions of one or another ethnic group. One can find many examples of a combination in rituals of rational techniques, practical actions developed empirically by farmers over many centuries and, perhaps, retaining their significance in our time, and crude superstitious signs and beliefs, the meaning of which is sometimes even difficult to grasp. These are, for example, two types of signs about the weather: some signs were due to the peasant’s great observation skills and his good knowledge of the surrounding geographical conditions; others are born of superstition and have no practical basis. Similarly, in rituals widespread in some countries aimed at ensuring the harvest of fruit trees, rational actions (sprinkling - fertilizing the ground around the tree with ash, tying it with straw) are accompanied by religious prejudices: the ash must certainly come from a burnt Christmas log, the straw must come from a ritual Christmas tree. sheaf, etc.

Some traditional customs and rituals developed at a time when there was a lot of cruelty and injustice in family and social life: for example, one feature was clearly reflected in Christmas fortune-telling - a girl wonders about the groom, who will “take” her, where she will be “given away” . In other words, this is where the old view of a woman comes into play, as an incomplete being who can be “taken” or “not taken”, who can be “given” here and there. In other customs, there is ridicule of a girl who did not get married in the past year.

Until recently, crude customs of barbaric killing of animals and birds, once associated, apparently, with sacrificial rites, persisted in some countries.

No less cruel are the customs found here and there of ritually whipping members of one’s community with thorny branches until blood appears.

Customs associated with the revival of nature after the winter solstice, with fertility spells, were often accompanied by rough erotic games.

In the past, great harm was caused by beliefs about special power during the festive period of various evil spirits, timed to coincide with the winter calendar cycle, and actions based on these beliefs to identify witches, sorceresses, etc. Throughout the Middle Ages, many innocent people were cruelly tortured or persecuted because of these ridiculous superstitions.

Finally, it is impossible not to mention the great harm to humans of some church rituals and institutions. The observance of long, exhausting fasts before each major holiday, especially characteristic of Catholics, caused, for example, great harm to people's health.

Over time, the old meaning of magical actions and rituals was forgotten and they turned, as shown in the material presented above, into folk games and entertainment. Gradually, those rigid church forms in which the clergy tried to clothe ancient folk festivals are becoming anachronistic. But in most cases, these church forms did not essentially change anything in folk traditions in the past. The customs remained what they were, and their connection with one or another saint turns out to be mostly accidental. And the saints themselves, from legendary martyrs for the faith, in most cases turned into funny folklore characters) giving gifts to children or appearing in merry processions of mummers.

In a word, the presence of a religious, church element in the winter Yuletide ritual does not change anything in the purely folk and essentially for a long time completely secular, entertaining character of this ritual. After all, if we talk about the strictly religious, church view of national calendar holidays, then we must remember how severely, how mercilessly persecuted the zealots of the church, Christian fanatics - Calvinists, Presbyterians, Puritans - any hint of any holiday amusements or entertainment, be it Christmas, Easter or other. Reading the Bible and listening to the Christmas sermon is what a Christian believer should do on the occasion of the Nativity of Christ. Deviations from this rule were severely punished. I looked at the matter the same way and Orthodox Church, which severely condemned “nasty demonic acts and games”, “nightly spitting”, “demonic songs and dances” and other “ungodly deeds” during church holidays. And indeed, the very spirit of Christianity, with its disdain for earthly life and its focus on afterworld, for the salvation of the soul - the festive Yuletide rituals were and remain hostile.

In the struggle for a new democratic and socialist civilization, it is necessary to protect and support everything in folk traditions that can decorate a person’s life, make it brighter, more joyful and more diverse. In the long process of mutual influence and borrowing among European peoples, a tendency towards the creation of new features of winter rituals, characteristic of all the peoples of Europe, is increasingly evident. These new features are, of course, formed on the basis of old folk rituals and customs of European farmers, but they first began to spread among the urban population and only gradually penetrate into rural areas in an updated form of tradition.

A striking example of one of these customs is the Christmas and New Year tree. Its spread was prepared since ancient times by the custom of using and winter rituals among European peoples of branches of evergreen plants, sometimes decorated with multi-colored threads, paper, nuts, etc. In its modern form, the tree, as already reported, appeared in the middle of the 18th century. in Germany and from here gradually began to spread to other European countries, having now gained great popularity among almost all the peoples of Europe.

The custom of exchanging gifts during the winter holiday cycle, well known to the ancient Romans, has now also become pan-European.

In the middle of the 19th century. the first colorful Christmas greeting card was printed in England, and today written greetings have become common in all countries; Every year more and more bright artistic postcards are produced.

Also interesting is the transformation taking place before our eyes of the traditional mythological image that brings gifts to children. Former images of saints - St. Nicholas, St. Martin, Baby Jesus and others are increasingly being replaced by one allegorical image of Father Frost - “Santa Claus” or more often Father Christmas, very similar in different countries even in their appearance. The Snow Maiden or the Winter Fairy becomes his constant companion. The tradition of mummers gave rise to the organization of mass folk festivals and masquerades in cities.

Thus, having lost their religious meaning, the rituals of the winter cycle were woven into the fabric of modern social life.

Among the Scandinavian peoples, winter rituals and holidays begin in November and continue until February. The biggest winter holiday is Christmas, December 23rd. Many customs, rituals, and beliefs are associated with it.

Despite the fact that the majority of residents of the Scandinavian countries are Protestants by religion (Lutheranism was introduced in all Scandinavian countries after the reforms of 1527-1539), there are still customs and rituals among the people dedicated to the days of remembrance of Christian saints and observed by the Catholic Church .

This fact once again shows that folk rituals and holidays essentially have very little or no connection with church images of saints and are purely externally, formally dedicated to the days of remembrance of one or another saint. The popularity of these saints is explained only by the coincidence of church dates with significant moments in the folk agricultural calendar.

The most popular of these dates are St. Martin, St. Nicholas, St. Lyu-tsii.1

From the day of St. Martin (November 11) summer is considered over and winter begins. By this time, the cattle are already in the stalls, the entire crop has been harvested, and the harvesting work has been completed. St. Day Martin, the patron saint of livestock, is often associated with the harvest festival. In some places in Sweden, on Martin's Day, male tenants gather in each village to sum up the annual results. Everyone sits around a long table on which wine, beer, and snacks are placed. A bowl of wine with wishes is passed around in a circle happy year and good health.

Village women celebrate this day differently. It's Saint's Day for them. Martina is associated with the end of geese grazing. Geese graze together in the pasture during the summer. In order to distinguish geese in the fall, each housewife puts her own special marks. When the grazing stops in the fall, the shepherdesses drive the geese into the village and breed them in the yards. This often results in confusion. Therefore, one of the next days, all the women in the village gather and go from yard to yard, choosing their geese. This “journey” is called “goose trekking” (“gasagang”). After viewing the village geese, the women organize a celebration in the evening with drinks and food. Later, men join the women and the general fun continues.

The holiday is also held in homes, family dinners are organized from autumn harvest and goose. There is a legend that St. Martin was hiding in the barn, and the goose gave him away, so you need to wring the goose's neck and eat it.

On Martin's Day, various fortune telling is known; goose bones try to determine whether the winter will be harsh or mild. On this day, all kinds of symbolic actions evoke goodness and prosperity. Evil spirits are driven away with whips and bells.

Feast of St. Nicholas (December 6) is considered a children's holiday. A man with a white beard dresses up as St. Nicholas, in the clothes of a bishop, he rides on a horse or a donkey with gifts in a bag behind his back (with nuts, dried fruits, mittens, etc.) and with a whip. He inquires about the behavior of children, rewards them or punishes them.

In the old days in Denmark, before going to bed on St. Nicholas Day, children put a plate on the table or put their shoes under a pipe in which gifts were placed. This custom is not mentioned in Sweden, Norway and Iceland, although it is possible that it could exist in these countries.

St. Day is considered a big holiday. Lucia (Lucia) (December 13). The holiday marks Saint Lucia's bringing of light into the dark season of Christmas. The name Lucia itself comes from “lux”, “lys” - light. Lucia's Day, according to popular belief, is the shortest in the whole year and is therefore considered the middle of the winter holidays. The origins of the Lucia festival are unclear; perhaps it arose in pre-Christian times. According to church legend in the 4th century. Christian Lucia was condemned and killed by the pagans for her faith. The celebration of Lucia Day can be traced back for many centuries. Among old people in Sweden there is a belief that Lucia can be seen at dawn over the frozen lakes: on her head is a luminous crown, and in her hands she holds a treat for the poor. In the old days, among the Swedes it was a home holiday, but nowadays it is also celebrated outside the family.

Lucia is a young girl wearing white clothes with a red belt and a crown of branches with candles. She visits houses at dawn, delivering coffee and cookies on a tray. In wealthy houses in the old days, the role of Lucia was often played by maids, also dressed in white clothes and with a crown on their heads. Domestic animals also received delicacies: a cat received cream, a dog received a good bone, horses received oats, cows and sheep received hay. This day was once celebrated with great enthusiasm. No one in the village slept on Lucia's night, lights were on everywhere in the houses, and the villages at night looked like twilight in the evening. In the families of St. Lucia is portrayed by the eldest daughter.

Currently the feast of St. Lucia is celebrated collectively - in organizations, factories, hospitals, in public places (cities and villages). Lucia - a beautiful girl - is chosen by vote. On this holiday, the streets of many Swedish cities are crowded with costumed companions of Lucia - young girls in long white clothes with candles in their hands and young men in white clothes and silver hats with cutouts in the form of stars and the moon, paper lanterns in their hands. On Lucia Day, schools end classes early and celebrate with illuminations.

After the day, Lucia begins to prepare for Christmas with even greater zeal.

The Christmas cycle conventionally covers two months from December 1 to February 1 - preparation for Christmas and celebration. The most important and solemn time is the “12 days” from Christmas Eve to Epiphany (December 24-January 6). All work has been abandoned. On December 25 and 26, institutions and enterprises are closed throughout Scandinavia, and schools are on vacation.

Christmas candles are lit during the new moon because they believe that such candles shine brighter.

Christmas Day (jul) is still celebrated with great solemnity in the regions of Småland and Skåne in Sweden. Preparations for the holiday begin a month before it. One of the family, according to the old custom, must take care in advance of new clothes and shoes for Christmas. On one of the days, two weeks before the holiday, the fattened Christmas piglets are slaughtered, which usually happens between two and three o'clock in the morning. The day before, the housewife prepares a well-cleaned or new cauldron of flour, into which the blood of the animals should flow. When the pigs are slaughtered, someone stands near the cauldron and stirs the blood and flour until the mixture becomes thick and baked. This was most often performed by a woman over 50 years of age who was not pregnant, since it was believed that a pregnant woman in this case could give birth to a sick child (with falling sickness or with a physical disability). Young women or girls with a groom were strictly forbidden to take any part in the slaughter of livestock.

When slaughtering piglets, the hooves and teats were buried in the pigsty in the place where the piglet lay, as it was believed that this brought good luck in breeding pigs.

Most often, livestock slaughter in Sweden occurs in mid or late November. For this purpose, after summer grazing and completion of all field work, animals are placed in the yard for fattening. Usually a cow or bull, a couple of pigs and a few sheep are prepared for slaughter. Geese were slaughtered for Christmas before, this happened on St. Martin or in front of him. In every village, one of the peasants is specially engaged in this craft.

Blood sausage blopolsan, which is very popular, is immediately prepared from fresh animal blood. An equally popular dish is paltar - balls the size of two fists, prepared from a mixture of flour with a certain amount of fresh blood, and fried in lard. Some of the meat and pork is smoked, but a significant amount is salted and not eaten until Christmas.

After preparing the meat and sausages, they begin brewing. This is most often done in a special building (stegerset), located next to the home. Beer is brewed for three to four days without interruption from morning to evening. They get three types of beer: Christmas beer itself, thick and strong, then more liquid and, finally, mash or kvass. At home cooking drinks consume quite a significant amount of grain. Almost every farm has malt, not only for its own needs, but also for sale.

Baking bread takes the most time, which also had to be done before Christmas. Bread is baked from different types of flour. First of all, huge round sodbrod breads are baked from wholemeal flour, weighing 6-8 kg for daily expenses. Ovens are large in size, so that 12-15 such loaves of bread can be placed in them at a time. Before baking, a cross is made on each of the breads with a knitting needle, so that a troll (evil spirit) or other evil spirit does not bewitch the baked goods.

For Christmas they bake so much bread that it lasts until spring. No baking is done until the day of the Annunciation (Bebadelsedag) - March 25th. In order to protect bread from mold, it is buried in heaps of grain.

14 days before Christmas, the “Christmas firewood” of julved, i.e. stakes and poles, begins to be prepared.

In all wealthy houses, baking was carried out, and beer was brewed not only for themselves, but also for distribution to the poor, watchmen, workers, and shepherds. Gifts consisted of bread, meat, porridge, beer, and candles. On Christmas Eve, before sunset, all the villagers gathered in the church. Upon returning home, everyone sat down to a festive meal. With Christmas comes everyone's celebration; There is not a single poor house where this event is not celebrated.

The smallest loaf of bread is always kept hidden away from one Christmas to the next or even longer. There were often cases of an 80-90 year old woman keeping a loaf of bread baked in her youth.

There was a belief that Christmas bread and beer, which were stored for a long time, allegedly possessed supernatural powers; they were considered a healing remedy against diseases of people and animals. A piece of Christmas bread or sakakan cake in many places in Scandinavia is always stored until the spring sowing. Before the plow or harrow is lowered into the ground for the first time, the horse is given a piece of bread or cake. When sowing, a piece of bread also lies at the bottom of the seeder, and after the completion of spring sowing, the plowman must eat this bread and wash it down with Christmas beer. They believed that in this case there would be a good harvest.

After the cattle have been slaughtered, the beer has been brewed and the bread has been baked, the cleaning of the premises begins - the ceilings and walls are washed, they are covered with wallpaper, the floors are polished, the stoves are painted, the equipment and dishes are cleaned. Pewter and silver dishes, polished to a shine, are displayed on shelves above the door to the home. On the morning of Christmas Eve, the Christmas tree is decorated. Before Christmas, everyone works without rest, especially women.

Christmas Eve, Christmas Eve (December 24), is called julafton, julaften, juleaften. On Christmas Eve before dinner, everyone is busy with small things. The workers put all the outbuildings in order and chop wood so that they don’t have to do these things until after baptism (up to three kings), prepare splinters, remove sheaves from the bins, and clean the horses. Pets are given better and more filling food to “be on good terms with them.” While the animals are being fed, the owner walks around the yard and arable land for the last time and checks to see if all the equipment has been removed. It was a common belief that if a peasant left his agricultural implements on his arable land at Christmas, then he was the last to reap the harvest of the previous year. This is how time passes until lunch.

Christmas celebrations begin on Christmas Eve itself. In some areas of Scandinavia (mainly in Western and Southern Sweden) in the afternoon on Christmas Eve, in the old days, “dipping into the cauldron” was held. It consisted of dipping pieces of bread on a fork into the meat broth in which the meat for the upcoming holiday was cooked, and eating it. Dipping into the cauldron took place with a certain solemnity and was considered as an introduction to the holiday itself. This ceremony was called "doppa" (dipping). Therefore, Christmas Eve was called in some places in Sweden dopparedagen (dipping day) 12. After dipping, they washed in the bathhouse and put on holiday clothes. By Christmas Eve until mid-19th V. straw was spread on the floor (after the living space was put in order) and the table was set.

At about six o'clock in the evening they sit down at the table and treat themselves. The treat is the same - on Christmas Eve, Christmas, New Year and Epiphany. In the evening meal on Christmas Eve they eat Christmas ham and porridge, then fish, bread made from finely sifted flour and butter. Among the drinks on Christmas Eve, the best, strong Christmas beer takes first place. After the meal, a large fire is built under the cauldrons in a fireplace made of thick pine wood, which produces large amounts of Julrek (Christmas smoke) smoke (julrok). At the same time, domestic animals are released to water and fumigated with Christmas smoke. The ashes after this fire are not thrown away, but are saved and on the second day in the morning they are sprinkled with it on domestic animals: supposedly this can protect them from illness, the devil and the evil eye. After the meal, the Christmas prayer is read. Then Christmas gifts are distributed. Instead of a Christmas tree, in many places there was a wooden pole decorated with red and green paper, as well as eight to ten candles. On Christmas Eve, candles are lit and they burn all Christmas night.

In Norway and Denmark, preparations for Christmas also begin long before it. Already in November, pigs and calves are slaughtered, and the meat is processed into delicacies of all kinds. Before Christmas, the house is cleaned for six months and the dishes are washed. Firewood is prepared two weeks in advance, since during Christmas time all work is prohibited for two weeks. Weaving looms and spinning wheels are removed and used again only after baptism.

Pets are given the best food with the words of a magic spell. There are many rituals, customs and beliefs associated with Christmas. In Norway they tell a legend about a careless girl who did not feed the animals on this day. The girl was sitting by the fence and suddenly heard the words “let the one who sits by the fence go blind,” and she immediately became blind. It is believed that it was the voice of a hungry cow.

Two weeks before the holiday in Norway and Denmark, the premises are cleaned, the utensils are cleaned, pies and special buns are baked, wines and various drinks are prepared. In the villages, peasants clean up the barnyard, clean and feed the best hay on the eve of Christmas to their domestic animals, so that “they are ready to welcome a merry Christmas.” Crosses are painted on plows and harrows and implements are hidden under yard awnings. In Denmark there is still a belief that a wandering shoemaker can find something without a cross on it and sit on it, which will bring bad luck to the house. The explanation is found in the legend that “the one who carried his cross” stopped to rest at the shoemaker’s door. The shoemaker drove him away, and then the “cross bearer” threatened the shoemaker that he would wander until he returned. People say that a shoemaker has been walking around Denmark for two hundred years looking for an unconsecrated plow, and if he finds it, the curse will end and pass from him to the owner of the plow. A well-known folk legend says that on Christmas night you can hear the footsteps of a wandering shoemaker.

Before Christmas, the festive baking and making of decorations for the home ends: paper cut-outs for the walls, stars for the Christmas tree, wooden toys, straw animals - julebockar goats, julegrisar pigs. Among various figures - decorations, gifts - the goat is the most popular.

Christmas birds (rooster, dove), wooden or straw, are also popular. They often stand with a goat on the Christmas table. They are hung from the ceiling. These straw figurines are associated with ancient mythology: a goat is an attribute of Thor, the thunder god, a pig is the god Frey, etc. Throughout Scandinavia, it is very common to give gifts to family, friends, and acquaintances. Gifts are wrapped and sealed with red wax, and rhymes or sayings about the use of the gift are included. They decorate a Christmas tree or Christmas tree (fir, pine and juniper branches) secretly from the children, always decorate it with the national flag on top (in Norway and Denmark), small flags on the bottom, and all sorts of toys.

On December 24th in the afternoon in Norway, as in Sweden, the family gathers around the fire for “dipping into the cauldron” (doppgrytan). A cauldron with boiled meat, sausages or ham stands on the hearth. Everyone, including guests and servants, cuts a piece white bread hevertored, verterored, verored, dips it on a fork into a cauldron with meat sauce, then eats this bread with a piece of meat. They do this for luck. They toast to happiness, drink mulled wine made from wine, rum, spices, and sometimes something else.

On December 24, Christmas Eve, everything is ready for celebration in all Scandinavian countries. All shops and markets are closed.

December 25 marks the culmination of the winter holidays. good wishes and great joys. No matter how late they calm down on the eve of the holiday, on December 25 everyone is already on their feet early in the morning, at six o’clock.

In the village there are candles burning in every window. Sleigh rides with pine torches. Then the burning torches are thrown into a fire built on a high place in the church yard. They say the traditional holiday greeting “Godjul!” The fire is extinguished at dawn, etc.

At home until lunch, everyone goes about their personal affairs. The holiday on the first day is spent in the family. No one comes to visit, because they believe that by doing so they take happiness out of the house. A stranger who enters the house, however, is treated to beer.

The festive table almost always includes fish dishes, and, above all, the Christmas cod lutfisk, which is prepared in a unique way. The cod is first dried and then soaked to a jelly state. The baked goods amaze with their pretentiousness and imagination - shaped bread, cookies in the form of figures of various animals, fourteen types of different cakes, one type for every day, and for dessert - a Christmas cake. Strong beer, punch and coffee are always present on the table. In many villages in Scandinavia, especially in Norway, they dress in ancient National costumes, in cities - in smart clothes. Dinner is served hot and cold. Until the beginning of the 20th century. In Norway, during Christmas Eve, someone would secretly make a straw effigy and hide it under the table. The effigy was often dressed in men's clothing. It was called julesven (Christmas guy). On Christmas Eve, food and a glass of beer were placed next to the scarecrow. This custom is still found in the mountainous regions of Norway.

After dinner, the door opens into a room with a Christmas tree, which was previously hidden from the children. The father of the family reads a prayer. Then there is a knock on the door, and the “Christmas grandfather” enters - julegubbe, julemand, jultomten, julenisse, portrayed by an uncle, brother or other men from the family. Father Christmas is very similar in appearance to the Russian Father Frost: he is dressed in a red hat, with a white beard, carries a bag of gifts over his shoulders, and arrives in a sleigh drawn by the goats of the god Thor. Children, having received gifts, thank him with a bow. After handing out gifts, Santa Claus dances around the Christmas tree.

After the gala dinner, dancing and games begin, which continue throughout Christmas. They dance in turn in each house. In this regard, the very first house in some areas of Sweden is consecrated (in the region of Öster Götland). In the first house there is a performance before the dance. Two young girls in white clothes with beautiful shiny crowns on their heads enter the house, with treats on a tray. Then the next two girls, dressed in the same way, enter and bring in a bush (buske) or a small Christmas tree with burning candles. The tree is placed on the floor in the middle of the house, and all four girls form a circle around the tree and sing songs in honor of everyone present. After this, they put the Christmas tree on the table and start dancing. For sports lovers, after lunch - skates, skis, sleds. On the second day of Christmas, a folk theater performance is most often held. Christmas dance evenings are a time of merry jokes and pranks performed by the mummers. Most often, they dress up as a goat, putting on an inverted sheepskin, and attaching horns, wooden or real, to their heads. Sometimes a lighted tow or flax sticks out in the mouth of the mask, so that sparks fly around. The mummers burst into the middle of the dancers and cause a commotion. In some villages, the same people act as mummers at Christmas for several years. In addition to the “mummers-goats”, the so-called “Christmas ghosts” (julspoken) go from house to house at Christmas. Men wrap a large piece of linen cloth over their clothes, tie a cord around their hips, stuff straw under the cloth to change their figure, tie a long, rough woolen tie around their neck, put on a tall black hat, smear their face with soot or dark paint, pick up a stick, and so on. go home. Usually a man in disguise goes with a woman or girl; she dresses up in a large old woman's coat and puts a wide-brimmed hat on her head. Upon entering the house, the mummers ask what work they can do. They are assigned some task, and then they are treated to beer, wine, nuts, and Christmas apples. The mummers sing songs to which you can dance. After the dancing begins, the mummers go to other houses, usually choosing the most friendly and generous hosts.

Early in the morning on the second day of the holiday, the owner inspects the yard, since there are frequent cases that, as a joke, a lot of manure, garbage and snow are thrown into the stable and barn at night, especially for those owners who were offended. If they wanted to please good owners, then, on the contrary, they cleaned the stables and sheds and put everything in order.

On the evening of the second day, fun and festivities began in the villages, called “Christmas huts” of julstugorna with dancing and dancing. Each guy chooses a girl to dance for the whole evening. On Christmas days they arrange various games, in which people of all ages take part. They play blind man's buff, change shoes, thread a needle with their eyes closed, tell fortunes with nuts, etc. Participants in such cheerful rural festivals love to sing popular folk songs.

In cities, December 26 is a day of parties and visits, holidays at enterprises and organizations. Holidays are organized by both adults and children. Hospitality is special these days. In many places, it is customary for passers-by to enter the house and share a festive meal.

From this day until January 13, meetings, dancing and celebrations with abundant food and visiting continue. At these evenings, acquaintances often took place between girls and young people.

On Christmas days, artisans and other townspeople put on their best costumes, wearing masks roughly made of wood - an ox's head, a goat's horns. Young people walk the streets singing and giving theatrical performances.

A visit to the Christmas market is a joyful event for people of all ages. In Stockholm's famous Skansen park (open-air museum), traders, artisans and artisans offer their specialties: Norrland sausage, herring salad, a variety of cheeses, arts and crafts and much more. In the evenings, Skansen hosts dancing under the Christmas tree. Shops with their rich display windows are doing brisk business these days.

Stockholmers have a custom of visiting graves on Christmas Eve, and the grave mound is decorated with a Christmas tree with candles burning on it. A Christmas tree is also common on Danish graves.

There is a custom on the eve of the New Year to organize processions of mummers. The mummers often carry a goat's head stuffed with hay on a stick with a long beard made of tow. Julesven (the Christmas guy) is also often present here.

The Yuletide fun was interrupted only by the solemn quiet New Year's Day. Between Christmas and New Year no work is carried out other than caring for the animals. They strive to spend the New Year as successfully as possible so that the whole year will be happy. They prepare dishes that, according to legend, supposedly heal illnesses for the whole year (for example, all kinds of apple treats for stomach diseases, etc.).

The streets of the capital before the New Year and on the New Year are illuminated and festively decorated with green garlands of spruce branches. Usually, New Year's Eve in cities goes like this: the family gathers at the festive table. At midnight, windows are opened, people go out onto balconies, fire rocket launchers, and sparklers are lit. On New Year's Eve, in some places there is a masquerade, group visits, dancing, snacks at home, with neighbors.

In Western Jutland, in the form of New Year's jokes, cart wheels are hidden in a well or pitchforks are thrown onto the roof, so prudent owners put all equipment under lock and key in advance.

At midnight before the New Year, churches ring bells for the outgoing year. In cities on New Year's Day, masquerades are held in public places and on the streets.

New Year's dinner consists of all kinds of snacks. A must-have dish in the coastal areas of Denmark is cod with mustard.

On New Year, January 1, they go to church in the morning, and then celebrate at home or go on a visit. Previously, the New Year was celebrated mainly at home in a family circle. The festive table on New Year's Day contains the same dishes as on Christmas Day. There are also various cold appetizers on the table: smergssbred, smerges, smerrebred, mainly fish - salmon, herring salad. The main dish on New Year's Day is cod; rice pudding with a lucky twist is also considered a must-have dish. Roast goose is always on the dinner table; meat, cheese, vegetables, pies, and sweets are also served. They drink a lot of beer.

On the second day of the New Year, parties, dinner parties, or festive entertainment are held (in organizations, clubs, etc.).

On January 2, the 9th day of Christmas, the old men hold a feast. At the feast, sagas about trolls and ghosts are told. This day is called gubbdagen - “old people’s day”.

This holiday has medieval traditions. Beliefs and some customs are also associated with it, although much less than with Christmas and the New Year. On this day, according to popular belief, good spirits come with wishes to children. Three-armed candelabra are lit everywhere. Students organize festive processions with songs and paper lanterns. Folk games are held. The cities depict the procession of the holy kings from the east; young men and boys - in white clothes and white conical hats, decorated with pompoms and astronomical signs, carry large transparent paper lamps on long poles, illuminated from within. In the villages, boys dress up in biblical costumes and go from house to house singing old folk songs of well-being that have been passed down from generation to generation.

Three Kings Day marks the end of the festive season. They begin to remove Christmas trees and green branches from houses. At night, young girls tell fortunes and try to find out their fate. According to the old custom, they back away and throw the shoe over their left shoulder. At the same time, kings are asked to predict fate. The one whom the girl sees in a dream after fortune telling will become her groom.

January 13 is the feast of St. Knuta, the 20th day of Christmas, the official end of the holidays. St. Knut, according to an old folk saying, drives away Christmas. Windows and doors are opened in houses to sweep away Christmas with a broom or other object. By existing custom On this day, in many areas of Scandinavia, traditional Christmas races are held along snowy roads and lakes in horse-drawn sleighs, with bells and cheerful songs. According to popular belief, the trolls themselves (spirits) organize horse races on this day under the leadership of the troll woman Kari the 13th. Feast of St. Knuta is the last day of Merry Christmas. The Christmas tree or Christmas tree is dismantled, chopped and burned in the oven.

So, Christmas ends on January 13th. They say that "Knut is leaving for Christmas." On this day in the evening, the last Christmas ball is held, to which Knut comes dressed up. Christmas ends at 12 o'clock at night between the day of Knut and Felix (January 13 and 14). Farewell to Christmas is accompanied by mummers. In the region of Skåne (southern Sweden) “witches” (Felixdockan) take part in the farewell ceremony: one of the men dresses up in women’s clothing, or they make a scarecrow. Then the stuffed animal is thrown away. In the evening, mummers come dressed in the most unrecognizable way - women in trousers, men in skirts, wearing masks, they change their voices so as not to be recognized. These are "Christmas ghosts." Knut also walks around the yards with cheerful witticisms, for which he is treated. In the evening of the holiday, the Christmas goat comes in the company of mummers.

From Felix's Day, January 14, everything returns to its usual order, spinning and other various household activities, work in barns and stables begin.

The Finnish folk calendar, which had developed by the beginning of the Middle Ages, was fundamentally agrarian, although it also retained more ancient elements associated with hunting and fishing, which became secondary, but continued to be vital trades for Finnish peasants. The main occupation of the Finns - agriculture - not only determined the specifics of the folk calendar, but also contributed to the continued persistent preservation of its most important elements over the centuries. Gradually the church strengthened its position in the country and expanded its influence on the daily life of the people; The church calendar also began to come into use. The church calendar has changed over time not only due to church events, as, for example, during the period of the Reformation, but transformations also took place there under the influence of the folk calendar. Entering the life of the people, church holidays were connected with those dates and holidays that fell at that time according to popular time. The days of church saints and holidays associated with the events of the Holy Scriptures turned out to be connected with the traditional works of the agricultural annual cycle. Rituals and customs dedicated to church holidays were often associated with pre-Christian beliefs, containing the remnants of ancient magical actions, traditional sacrifices designed to ensure the economic well-being of the peasantry.

The Finns divided the year into two main periods: summer and winter. One was a time of field work, the other was a period of domestic work, crafts, forestry and fishing. The original days of counting were the “winter day”, which was October 14, and the “summer day,” which was April 14. Each half of the year was in turn divided into two parts by its, so to speak, highest point: January 14th was considered the “center of winter”, and July 14th was considered the “midsummer”

It is characteristic of the Finnish calendar that although sometimes, when determining the dates of the agricultural calendar, the weeks were named after the saints on whose days they began, but, as a rule, they did without this, and the reference points for counting the working dates were the days of the folk calendar - “winter” and “summer day”, “middle” of winter and summer.

October belonged to the winter period, but the beginning of winter was not the first, but October 14, St. Calista. The popular beginning of winter, designated as “winter day” and “winter night” or “winter nights,” was, as we see, delayed from the end of the old year, the day of the end of field work, by two weeks - from Michaelmas to Kalist.

One of the significant church holidays that fell in October was St. Brigitte (folk Finnish forms of this name are Piryo, Pirkko, etc.) - October 7. In some areas of Finland, this saint was very popular, many churches were dedicated to her, and October 7 was a big holiday.

St. Day Brigid in the folk calendar determined the beginning of knitting a large winter seine. A large fair was held in Halikko on this day, called Piritta (also a popular form of the name Brigitte). It was mainly where peasants exchanged grain for fish from fishermen. folk custom ritual winter calendar

October 28 was the day of Simo, i.e. St. Simon (8ntyupra1Ua), when, as it was believed, winter weather had finally set in.

Of particular interest is the “squirrel day” that occurred in October, which was in no way connected with the Christian calendar. The squirrel has long played a major role in the country's economy; its fur was one of the important export items and served as a unit of exchange, a measure of money and even grain. In this regard, squirrel hunting was regulated very early. On wooden calendars, the day of the squirrel, that is, the beginning of the hunt for it, was indicated by a special sign. It was also included in printed calendars. The day the squirrel hunt began was not the same for the entire country, which is not surprising if you remember its extent from south to north.

At the end of October and beginning of November, according to the popular calendar, an important period began, lasting ten to twelve days and called “time of division”, “time of division”. In some places this period was counted from November 1, in others from October 28, on Martin's Day - November 10 - it ended. There are many customs, prohibitions, and signs associated with this period, which in itself speaks of its importance.

To a certain extent, this twelve-day period was a time of rest from everyday work. Many everyday activities were prohibited: it was forbidden to wash, spin, shear sheep, or slaughter cattle. It was possible to weave nets, which was quiet and clean work, women could do small needlework, even take such work with them when they went to visit. In general, at this time it was customary to visit relatives and friends; men gathered in groups to drink and talk. But one had to behave respectably, not noisily. In accordance with this holiday period, a free week or two for employees began on November 1st. But prohibitions of various kinds relating to this period spoke not only of its festivity, but also of the dangers that lurked in it. At this time, it was impossible to reduce your household in any form: you could neither give nor lend anything to neighbors, you could not give anything to the poor (probably the ban on slaughtering livestock was also associated with this). A violator of this prohibition could undermine the welfare of his farm next year.

The importance of the “time of partition” was also emphasized by the fact that young people in many places during these days told fortunes to find out their future.

The weather these days was also of great importance. The old people used it to predict the weather for the entire next year. Each day of the division time corresponded to one of the months: the first - January, the second - February, etc. In addition, if the sun was shining on these days, the year had to be sunny. The appearance of the sun promised 9 sunny days during haymaking. According to signs, if the sun showed up even for such a period of time that it was only possible to saddle (or harness) a horse, the year will not be bad. But if it was cloudy for all 12 days, then it was considered pointless to cut down the forest in the slash plot: the summer would be so rainy that the trees would not dry out and they could not be burned.

A special place in this period was occupied by the day of kekri or keuri. Currently, this day is celebrated on the first Saturday of November, which is a holiday and free day. At one time, the official calendar set Kekri Day on November 1st.

In ancient times, the year ended in September, but over time, agriculture developed, cultivated fields increased, the size of the crop grew, new crops appeared, and harvesting, and most importantly, threshing could not be completed by Michaelmas. Gradually the harvest festival moved to a later date. Along with it, the time of the beginning of the new year and the “time of division”, which previously apparently fell on the interval between the end of the old year and the “first day of winter,” inextricably moved.

The “time of division,” as well as the gap between the end of harvesting and the day of winter, was explained by the fact that the old lunar year, which consisted of 12 months, had a difference with the solar year, which came into use later, by 11 days. Just adding these days to lunar year, it was possible to start the new year. Together with New Year's Day, a period of 12 holidays was formed, to which great symbolic significance was attached.

The Finnish calendar does not represent anything exceptional in this regard: the “time of division” or the time of “alignment” was known to many peoples. The Estonians celebrated the time of partition at the same time as the Finns, although more scanty information has been preserved about it. In Germany and Sweden, this period occurred in the middle of winter, when old year and a new one began.

The month of November was called “marraskuu” in Finnish, which they tried to explain different ways. Currently, they adhere to the point of view that this word is based on the concept of bare, dead, empty (earth).

November has a rich working calendar, with major church holidays.

According to the working calendar, nets should have been made in this month; it was believed that nets made in November were stronger and more catchy than others. The large winter seine was supposed to be completed by St. Andrew's Day (XI 30). If they did not have time to produce all the necessary netting, then at least some of the cells on each tackle had to be connected in November. November was also considered favorable for cutting down trees.

Of the days associated with church holidays, it is worth noting St. Martina. It is celebrated on November 10, which marks the death of Pope Martin (655) and the birthday of Martin Luther (1483). But the customs associated with this day refer to a completely different Martin - a bishop who spread Christianity among the Gauls in the 4th century, founded the first monastery in the West and is famous for the legend that he gave half of his cloak to a beggar. In reality, his day falls on November 11th. But it was on the 10th (and not only in Finland, but also in Estonia and Ingria) that mummers, usually children, were walking around the village, posing as beggars. They went from house to house, sang, collected “alms” - various foods - and then ate it together in some house. But Martin's Day was not only, so to speak, a children's holiday. On this day there was a ceremonial meal, meat dishes were obligatory - fresh pork, blood sausages. In some areas there was even an expression “meat Martin.” Beer was served to the table, the bathhouse was heated, of course, they went to visit each other, and settled troubles - in particular, with hired workers. Apparently, this day acquired such significance because it was the last day in the “partition period.”

In the working calendar, Martin's day was also a prominent date: in some areas it was the time of settlement with shepherds, in addition, on this day they finished fishing in open water and began to prepare for ice fishing. In Southwestern Finland, women had to prepare part of the linen yarn for this day: it was believed that if there was no yarn by Martin's Day, then by May there would be no fabric.

Of the subsequent church holidays, the most interesting in terms of traditions and the most celebrated was Catherine’s Day - November 25. The celebration of Catherine's Day was by no means ecclesiastical. Katerina was the same patroness of sheep among the Lutheran population as Anastasia was among the Orthodox. On Catherine's day, sheep were sheared, and this wool was considered the best: thicker than summer shearing and softer than winter shearing. Lamb was also served at the table that day.

The last day of November was St. Andrey-Antti-ZO.X1. Since Antti (Andrey), according to legend, was a fisherman, he, along with St. Peter, was considered the patron saint of fishing and fishermen. And to this day, when throwing nets into the water, fishermen say: “Give me some perch, Antti, Pekka (Peter) - some small fish.” Some fishing societies hold annual meetings on this day. It was believed that with Andrei it was time for Christmas, and there was a saying: “Anti starts Christmas, Tuomas brings him into the house.”

The last month of the modern calendar is December, which is now called joulukuu, i.e. “Christmas month.”

In December, weather-related signs begin to concern the near future. This is explained by the coming period of frosts and blizzards, when it is important to know the signs when traveling into the forest and in general during long trips. The sign of the approaching blizzard was the crackling of ice, the crackling of a burning splinter, so strong that it broke. Before a snowstorm, hares appeared at the edge of arable fields and dug holes there for lying; birds were hitting the window.

The cry of crows heralded warmer weather. Christmas was especially important for weather forecasting (see below). 4 weeks before Christmas, the Advent period, or “little Christmas” begins. In Helsinki, a Christmas tree is erected on Senate Square, and a decorated and illuminated “Christmas street” opens. Other cities are trying to keep up with the capital. The upcoming Christmas is celebrated in educational institutions, enterprises and institutions. Two weeks before Christmas, the Christmas holidays begin in schools, the semester ends in higher educational institutions, and every year more and more larger number employees and workers also receive Christmas holidays. The nature of the “little Christmas”, which began to be celebrated after the First World War and which has become a tradition since the 1950s, is completely at odds with the pious and quiet church style of the Advent period.

Day of St. Nicholas of Myra - December 6 - did not exist in Finland of great importance. In any case, the Finns did not have the custom of giving gifts to children on this day, as is customary in Western Europe.

In Finland it is St. Lucia was never celebrated among the people; but it is interesting because there are many sayings associated with it, the meaning of which is that the longest night of the year is “after St. Day.” Lucia, on Anna's Eve." But St. Lucius was not the shortest, for it is December 13th. In addition, St. Anna is before him - December 9th. However, it was possible to establish that before the 18th century. St.'s day The Finns celebrated Anna on December 15 (then a change was made in accordance with the Swedish calendar). Thus, the expression “the night of St. Lucia, the eve of Anna” is understandable. Why exactly this night? folk tradition, was considered the longest? The answer is obviously that the cult of these saints came to the northern countries in the 14th century, when Julian calendar lagged behind the true time calculation by 11 days, i.e. the day of the winter solstice fell on December 14.

Anna's Day (Finnish forms of the name - Anni, Annikki, Anneli, etc.) was considered the beginning of preparations for the Christmas holidays. There is numerous information that the bread intended for Christmas was placed and kneaded on St. Annin’s day, and baked at night. The long night allowed us to bake two portions of bread. One of the breads, the “Christmas “bread,” was given the shape of a human face; it was then eaten on Christmas morning. On the night when bread was baked for Christmas, it was customary to go to neighbors to ask for “alms” in the form of pies. They were given willingly and generously - it was believed that that success in the future depends on this, especially in agriculture and fishing.

From December 21st, St. Thomas (Tuo-masa), began to prepare the room for Christmas. They washed and whitewashed the smoke-stained walls, hung ceiling crowns, prepared candles, etc. On this day in the evening they arranged little holiday: you could try Christmas beer, often pork legs were served at the table - a delicious dish. There was a saying: “Whoever doesn’t have Tuo-mas on Day, doesn’t have it on Christmas.” This day was sad for the traders - contracts with the owners of the land were ending. In some places that night they told fortunes. For example, in Karjala they stuck splinters into the snowdrifts, marked with the names of all the inhabitants of the house, and by the combustion they determined what awaited whom in the future.

Finally, on December 25th, Christmas came. Both the holiday and its name - joulu came to Finland from Sweden. Probably, initially the borrowing took the form of yuhla, which now generally means a holiday, but in Karjala this is the name of All Saints' Day, and in Pohjanmaa it is Christmas.

Among church holidays, Christmas turned out to be very persistent and important. This was undoubtedly facilitated by the timing of the celebration and the old traditions behind it. In many Central European countries, this was the “period of leveling off” and the beginning of the new year. Christmas coincided with the winter solstice, which determined the accuracy of the date. In Sweden at this time there was a celebration of the end of the harvest and threshing of bread and the beginning of the new year. It is the old traditions, previously associated with the day of kekri, the time of “alignment” of the solar year, etc., that explain much of the traditions of Christmas. Traditions such as fortune telling, predicting the weather for the whole year, magical actions to ensure the harvest and well-being of the herd, and even the family nature of the holiday - holding it without guests - in a word, the traditional features of Keuri were carried over to Christmas.

Christmas Eve did not have a special name - they simply said “Christmas Eve.” On this day they worked as on weekdays, but they tried to start work early, did it especially carefully, and ended the working day early. Already in the afternoon the bathhouse was heated, dinner was served early, many went to bed early so that they could go to church early in the morning.

As already mentioned, the room was prepared for the holiday in advance - and on Christmas Eve the floor was covered with straw. There could be no Christmas without a floor covered with straw. This custom was widespread throughout almost all of Finland. At the same time, the custom of covering the floor of the church with straw also persisted for a very long time. There were different rules in different localities regarding who brought the straw into the house and how it was to be spread.

But the main meaning of a floor covered with straw is a symbol of the harvest and ensuring a future harvest. Before spreading the straw, they threw it in handfuls up into the ceiling. If straw caught on the ceiling boards, which in the old days were made of split boards and therefore had a rough surface, this foreshadowed a good harvest. We tried to keep as much straw as possible hanging on the ceiling. Apparently, this custom also goes back to decorating the ceiling (usually above the table) with pyramidal crowns made of straw and splinters, which were common in other European countries.

In many places it was not allowed to tangle the straw with one's feet - this could lead to the grain falling on the field.

The straw usually remained on the floor throughout the Christmas holidays, from Christmas Eve to Epiphany or St. John's day. Sometimes it was changed in a certain order - for the New Year and for baptism, and for the New Year they laid barley straw, and for baptism - oatmeal, or vice versa.

Christmas decorations, along with straw crowns, included elaborate homemade wooden chandeliers for candles, and wooden crosses on a stand that were placed on the table.

The fir tree as a Christmas tree appeared very late in the Finnish village.

The evening meal on Christmas Eve was quite early. It gave food - usually bread and beer - to domestic animals.

In the old days, young people usually told fortunes on the night before Christmas - by the burning of a torch, by the behavior of animals, by the way a rooster brought into the hut pecked at the grain, they believed that they could guess their fate; believed in prophetic dreams this night, etc.

Both Christmas Eve and Christmas were spent with one's family; guests were considered undesirable, just as they were on Kekri Day. The only meeting with fellow villagers and other parishioners took place on Christmas morning in the church, the only noisy moment was the return from church - usually they raced horses: whoever made it home first was supposed to have good luck all year.

In the old days, food for Christmas began to be prepared in advance. When salting pork, they set aside the best cuts of meat for Christmas, and stocked up other products in advance - it was believed that food should not leave the table during the Christmas holidays. Even poor peasants tried their best to comply with this rule.

The second day of Christmas was St. Stephen (Finnish: Tapani), the first Christian martyr, who became the patron saint of horses in Finland. Obviously, this happened due to the coincidence in time of this saint’s Day with a pre-Christian holiday dedicated to the horse. In many places in Finland, it was on this day that a foal was harnessed for the first time, a young horse was ridden for the first time, etc. Horse racing was held almost everywhere on this day. In Southern Finland they still remember that Tapani's day used to begin with one of the young men riding into the living quarters on horseback and sitting on the horse while it ate a bucket of bran or oats. In many places, special “Tapani bread” was baked for this day, which was eaten before the start of the competition. In some places, only men ate Tapani bread, and this had to be done in the stable.

With Tapani, various youth entertainments and games began, and mummers appeared. The mummers walked at any time from Stefan's day to Knut.

There were two kinds of them: “goats” and “star children”.

Among the mummers, called “whip goats”, “Christmas goats”, there were various animal figures and masks. First of all, these were goats - people in fur coats turned upside down, with horns and tails, a “Christmas crane”, as well as a rider on a horse. Men dressed up as women, women as men, blackened their faces with soot, etc. The mummers walked from house to house, started games, acted out skits; they were treated.

The second group of mummers, the “star boys” or “Stephen’s boys,” are apparently borrowed from medieval mysteries. This procession walked with candles, one of the boys carried the Star of Bethlehem. The procession was attended by figures depicting King Herod, a soldier, and the “Arap king.” The traditions of walking “star children” were preserved mainly in Häme, as well as in the vicinity of Oulu and others.

According to ancient Finnish ideas, the central winter month was double. January and February were called big and small or first and second.

January was a relatively easy month for the peasant. In January, they continued to harvest timber, prepare fishing gear, and women spun and weaved.

The celebration of the New Year on January 1 was adopted by the Finns in the 16th century. Before this, as already mentioned, the year began after Michaelmas, gradually moved towards the end of October and at one time was apparently celebrated on November 1st. Since the New Year began to be celebrated on January 1, the features characteristic of such a date have passed to its eve and to the first day. On the eve they began to guess.

Just like before Christmas, the floor was covered with straw on New Year's Eve. On New Year's Day they used it to tell fortunes by throwing it up. If the straw caught on the poles, then this promised harvests.

Everyone had to behave with dignity on New Year's Day - as he did everything on this day, so it would be for the whole year. There were many signs associated with the weather on January 1st.

January 6 - baptism, which was called loppiainen, a term derived from the word “end”, i.e., in meaning - farewell to the Christmas days. Epiphany was not a big holiday in Finland, since everything connected with the end of the Christmas period was moved to Canute's Day (January 7 or 13. Canute's Day fell on January 7 until 1708, then was moved to January 13. According to tradition, it was that Knut's day is the end of the Christmas holidays; sometimes it simply depended on the welfare of the peasant to end them a week earlier - on January 7 or later - on the 13th.

On the day of Knut it was possible to begin ordinary work, but on this day

Some Christmas games also took place - the mummers, “Knut’s goats” or “Knut’s wanderers”, etc. again walked around. They went from house to house to “wash the barrels” - to finish the Christmas beer.

In a narrow way, we have seen that the Finnish folk calendar has steadily retained its characteristics of an agrarian calendar over the centuries. The latter were manifested in the fact that the year was divided into two halves according to the work - summer and winter, while spring and autumn were not particularly distinguished.

Conclusion

At the end of this work, we can say with complete confidence that Western European peoples attached great importance to holidays. Each holiday involved certain preparations for it, which could take longer than the holiday itself. And all processes associated with festive preparation were surrounded by many signs and superstitions, which forced them to prepare for the holiday this way and not otherwise.

In addition, the holiday, distracting people from everyday worries, family troubles, life difficulties, provided psychological relief, and spending time together and active communication created the illusion of equality of all people, although for a short time, relieved social tension in society.

The holidays, to which many people flocked, also provided opportunities for boys and girls to choose a marriage partner, and joy and fun relieved the natural tension between young people.

It can also be said that all folk holidays were closely intertwined with church holidays, as a result of which they mixed and adjusted to each other.

Some ancient holidays have been integrated into modern Western European culture, and continue to exist to this day, thereby giving people a good and cheerful mood, a “holiday mood.”

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