Prehistoric period. Primitive man Methods and methods of research

Term "prehistoric period" used to designate the period of time before the beginning of “history” itself - the moment of the emergence of writing and the appearance of the first written historical evidence. In the broadest sense, this period can include all the time since the origin of the Universe (about 13.75 billion years ago). But more often the term is applied to the period of time since the emergence of life on Earth, or, even more specifically, since the emergence of the first human species.

The term “prehistoric” (ante-historique) was first coined by the French pharmacist and archaeologist Paul Tournal to describe his findings during excavations in the Bizet Caves in Southern France. Thus the term came into use in France in the 1830s to refer to the time period before the invention of writing. In 1851 the word “prehistoric” was included in English language(prehistoric) courtesy of archaeologist Daniel Wilson.

Origin and evolution of man

There are hypotheses that the development and spread of mammals, and, consequently, the evolution of humans as a biological species, are due to the extinction of dinosaurs. The extinction event occurred about 65.5 million years ago, at the end of the Cretaceous period, and freed up many ecological niches, which were occupied by mammals.

Among primitive mammals, some small animals (like modern insectivores) switched to an arboreal lifestyle. From them came the first primates.

The earliest ancestors of modern primates - the group to which modern humans belong - separated from the related group of woolly wings, according to various estimates, from 65 to 116 million years ago.

Humans are part of a group (parvoorder) of the broad-nosed monkeys, or Old World primates, which separated from the broad-nosed monkeys (New World primates) about 40 million years ago. Then, about 30 million years ago, in the Oligocene, the superfamily of apes (hominoids or anthropomorphids) emerged.

During the Miocene, hominoids experienced a dramatic increase in the number and diversity of species. Also during this period (16-20 million years ago) they began to spread from Africa to Asia and Europe. And 5-8 million years ago, according to paleontological and biomolecular studies, the human branch separated from the common trunk.

About 4.2 million years ago, Australopithecus appeared in the Pliocene. It is believed that their further evolution took two different paths: one branch led to the formation of the genus People (lat. Homo), and the other improved as australopithecines with the formation of new species. Although there is an alternative opinion, which is that all australopithecus were a side branch of hominoids and are not the direct ancestors of humans. The last of the australopithecus died out about 900 thousand years ago. Australopithecines had two important qualities that brought them closer to humans: the use of tools and “bipedism” - walking on two hind limbs, although upright walking was still incomplete.

In 1960, Leakey archaeologists discovered the remains of a hominid who lived more than 2 million years ago. They called him a skilled man. The volume of his brain was significantly greater than the volume of his brain modern monkeys and Australopithecus. It started the evolutionary trend towards larger brains. In addition, Homo habilis already consciously and purposefully made and used stone (quartz) tools, albeit very primitive ones (Olduvai culture). The period of existence of the species as a whole was more than half a million years.

In 1971, another species of hominid was found - a working man. Homo ergaster lived approximately 1.4-1.8 million years ago. Their brains became larger than those of a skilled person, their body sizes grew, and the tools they used improved.

The direct ancestor of modern humans (lat. Homo sapiens sapiens) is considered to be Homo erectus, although many paleoanthropologists believe that Homo erectus was only a variety of Homo ergaster, and not a separate species. Having appeared in Africa, Homo erectus about 1.8 million years ago began to spread throughout Eurasia all the way to China. It was initially believed that it completely died out about 300 thousand years ago, giving way to the Neanderthals. However, modern research shows that some populations could survive before the appearance of humans. modern type. In particular, in Indonesia, Homo erectus died out only about 27 thousand years ago, and its dwarf variety - 18 thousand years ago.

One of the further stages in the evolution of Homo erectus was the Neanderthal. Not being the direct ancestor of modern humans, for a long time Neanderthal coexisted with him. The ancestors of Neanderthals (protoneanderthals) appeared about 350 thousand years ago. Typical Neanderthals - approximately 140 thousand years ago. The disappearance occurred, according to various estimates, 28-33 thousand years ago. The genome of modern humans (except Africans) contains 1-4% of Neanderthal genes. It is interesting to note that the brain volume of Neanderthals was slightly larger than that of Homo sapiens.

The oldest representatives of modern humans appeared, according to various estimates, from 250 to 400 thousand years ago.

Anatomically modern people appeared in Africa about 200 thousand years ago, forming the species Homo sapiens sapiens, to which all living people belong. 50-100 thousand years ago they moved from Africa to Eurasia. Subsequently, they displaced (exterminated or partially assimilated) all other species of their genus Homo.

Temporal boundaries

Based on the definition, the beginning of the prehistoric period in the narrow sense of the word should be considered the moment of the appearance of the first (albeit very primitive) people. As described above, this happened approximately 2.5-2.6 million years ago. Since man emerged as a result of a slow evolutionary process, it is natural that an exact date cannot be established. In addition, the appearance of people in different regions of the planet due to various (including climatic and geographical) factors was far from simultaneous. Therefore, strictly speaking, the prehistoric period began 2.5-2.6 million years ago only in the cradle of humanity - Africa, and in other regions this could have happened much later. For example, the first people came to America no more than 30 (and according to other estimates only 12-14) thousand years ago. On the other hand, if we consider Australopithecus to be the most primitive species of people, then the beginning of the prehistoric period in Africa is pushed back to 4.2 million years ago.

It is even more difficult to determine the end of this period, because time when reliable written sources become an important academic resource, varies greatly from region to region. For example, in Ancient Egypt the historical era begins around 3200 BC, while in New Guinea the end of the prehistoric period came much later, around 1900 AD.

In Europe, classical cultures Ancient Greece And Ancient Rome have been relatively well documented. At the same time, they were surrounded by cultures, including the Celts and, to a lesser extent, the Etruscans, who had little or no written language. And now historians must decide how accurate the (often very biased) information about these cultures preserved in ancient Greek and Roman literature is. To denote this kind of information about one culture (which does not have or has not adequately developed its own writing) in the written documents of another culture, the term “protohistory” is sometimes used (but is not generally accepted).

In addition, some scientists are of the opinion that the appearance of writing is not a necessary criterion for the end of the prehistoric period. They consider the development of complex social and economic relations to be more correct criteria: changes in the environment, the construction of cities, the emergence of administrative bodies, the development of trade, etc.

Thus, for some cultures the term “prehistoric period” is not applicable at all, or is applied in a sense that differs from that common to humanity as a whole. In particular, the highly developed civilizations of the Incas, Mayans and Aztecs had a socially and economically complex society, large cities, etc., and they can be attributed to the prehistoric period only on the formal basis of the absence of writing.

Methods and methods of research

The main researchers of the prehistoric past are archaeologists and physical anthropologists, who use excavations, data from geological and geographical research and other methods of scientific analysis to identify and interpret the nature and behavior of prehistoric peoples. Geneticists and historical linguists also provide valuable data for understanding the prehistoric past. Because objects made by people passed from hand to hand as a result of trade and marriage, then cultural anthropology plays an important role in the study of the prehistoric past. In addition, a wide range of natural and social sciences are used to address questions of the prehistoric past, such as nuclear physics(absolute dating), geomorphology, soil science, paleontology, biology, palynology, geology, archaeoastronomy, comparative linguistics, anthropology, molecular genetics, ethnography and many others.

Unlike the historical prehistoric period of human development, it differs in that its researchers deal not with specific people or even nations, but with archaeological cultures. At the same time, the true names and self-names of ethnic groups, localities, etc. remain, with extremely rare exceptions, unknown. And the terms used (Neanderthal, Iron Age, etc.) are retrospective and, to a large extent, conditional.

Archaeological periodization

Because By definition, there are no written documents from human prehistory, dating prehistoric materials is an extremely difficult matter. Its chronology began to take on its features only in the 19th century. during the work of the great taxonomists Carl Linnaeus, Buffon and others.

To systematize the prehistoric period of human existence, a system of archaeological periodization of 3 eras, the so-called “3-century system”, is usually used, which was first used by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen to organize the collection of exhibits in the National Museum of Denmark according to the material from which they were made.

The "3-Age System" consists of three successive time periods named according to the prevailing tool-making technologies: the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age.

Currently, the concepts of “Bronze Age” and “Iron Age” continue to be widely used. “Stone Age” as a whole gave way to its more precise and defined subdivisions “Paleolithic” and “Neolithic”, which were first used by John Lubbock, as well as “Mesolithic”, “Epipalaeolithic” and “Chalcolithic”.

In 1869, Gabriel de Mortillier proposed an alternative periodization system of 14 successive eras (cultures), named after the places in which the corresponding cultures were found, described and well represented. The periodization system as such has not taken root, but the names of crops from it are widely used in our time (Mousterian, Solutrean, etc.).

Stone Age

Paleolithic

11,700 years ago: end of the Paleolithic.

9500 BC: Agriculture in Sumer, beginning of the Neolithic revolution.

7000 BC: Agriculture in India and Peru.

6000 BC: Agriculture in Egypt.

5000 BC: Agriculture in China.

4000 BC: arrival of the Neolithic in Northern Europe.

3600 BC: Beginning of the Bronze Age in the Middle East and Europe.

3300 BC: Beginning of the Bronze Age in India.

3200 BC: End of the prehistoric period in Egypt.

2700 BC: Agriculture in Mesoamerica.

Prehistoric man

If our information about the prehistoric era in general is rather limited and fragmentary, then even less is known about the man himself of that time. True, many finds of parts of human skeletons from post-Pliocene deposits or dating back to the Paleolithic era have been described; but, firstly, these parts are usually very fragmentary, and secondly, the extreme antiquity of many of them is questioned. Quatrefage and Ami even found it possible to distinguish between these ancient human remains three types and attribute them to three races: Canstadt (with a long and low skull, reminiscent of the Australian), Cro-Magnon (with a long, high, rather voluminous skull, developed nose, etc.). etc. - in general, a type reminiscent of the type of Berbers, Kabyles, Guanshes, etc.) and Furfozskaya (with a skull of medium length and short, i.e. meso- and brachycephalic, somewhat similar to the Laplandian). The Canstadt race received its name from one cranial fragment found back in the 18th century, in a clay layer of a hill near Canstadt, near Stuttgart, in Württemberg (the remains of antediluvian animals were allegedly discovered there), but described only in the city of Jäger. This fragment consists of a frontal part of the skull that is very sloping backwards, with highly developed brow ridges. A similar structure of the forehead is represented by the famous Neanderthal skull (more precisely, the skull cap), found in the city in a layer of clay, 2 meters thick, at the entrance to a small grotto, in the Neander Valley, between Düsseldorf and Elberfeld, along with several bones of the skeleton same individuals. Unfortunately, the antiquity of this skull has not been sufficiently established (two stone axes from the Neolithic era were found not far from it); in addition, Virchow, examining other parts of the same skeleton, found on them clear traces of deformation from the English disease and from senile gout. As for the Canstadt skull, its antiquity is even more doubtful, and since a burial ground of the Frankish era was discovered near that place, there is reason to think that this skull also belonged to some Frankish warrior. More likely is the antiquity of the Egisheim skull, found near Colmar, in Alsace, in a layer of post-Pliocene clay, from which a mammoth tooth and a primitive bison footstock were also obtained; This skull is somewhat reminiscent in its shape of the Kanstadt skull. The skull found near Olmo, in the Arno Valley, at a depth of 15 meters, in a layer of dense clay, along with a flint point, an elephant tusk, the remains of coal, etc., also bears well-known signs of antiquity. Quatrefage and Ami saw in it a female type Canstadt race, while Pigorini expresses doubts about its extreme antiquity. The Cro-Magnon race is based on the skeletons found in the city during the laying of railways. roads, near the village Eyzies, on the bank of the river. Wesers, in French. dep. Dordogne; human remains were discovered here under an overhanging rock, in a layer of earth and stones, under which several successive traces of hearths could be identified (layers of ash and coal, with flint tools and bones). It is believed that the shelter under this rock repeatedly served as a place of settlement or stopover, and subsequently several dead men and women were buried here (of which one woman, judging by the skull, was killed by a strong blow from an ax that broke her head). However, Boyd Dawkins and Mortillier doubt that this burial belongs to the Paleolithic era and are inclined to attribute it to the Neolithic period, when the custom of burial in caves and grottoes was quite common, and the buried corpses could often be lowered into a layer with the remains of an more ancient, Paleolithic culture. Be that as it may, the Cro-Magnon troglodytes, judging by their remains, were a tall, strong, prominent people, with a well-developed skull and without any traces of any underdevelopment or inferior structure. The same can be said regarding the Engis skull (from a cave along the Meuse River, in the province of Liege, Belgium), the conditions of which are partly similar to those of Cro-Magnon. Finally, the Furfoz race is based on 16 skeletons obtained in 1872 in a grotto near Namur, and the skulls of which were of a type completely different from those of Canstadt and Cro-Magnon; Some researchers attribute them, however, also more likely to the beginning of the Neolithic age. In any case, these skulls prove that man of the Paleolithic era was represented in Western Europe by several types, none of which can be recognized as transitional to the type of higher animals (monkeys) or as lower in organization than any of the modern. The Neanderthal or Kanstadt type can be considered the least perfect; however, this type of skull is found not only among Australians and other modern savages, but sometimes also among civilized peoples, specifically in individual individuals, and in some places in a certain group of the population. Thus, Virchow could ascertain a similar type of skull among the population of the coast of the German Sea (descendants of the ancient Frisians). Much speculation was also aroused by the finds of several human lower jaws made in 1863-80 in France, Belgium and Moravia. In the city, the Moulin-Quignon jaw was found in one Abbeville quarry, at a depth of 4.5 meters, in the layer from which Boucher de Pert extracted many flint tools, so-called. called Saint Acheulian type. This jaw (which, however, does not represent anything anomalous) was considered doubtful in relation to its antiquity; in all likelihood, it was planted by workers who were promised a reward for finding human parts in the said deposits. backbone. More likely is the antiquity of the so-called Nolet jaw, found by Dupont in the Nolet cave (Trou de la Nolette), on the left bank of the Lessa River, at a considerable depth, in a layer where the remains of a mammoth, a fossil rhinoceros and a reindeer were also found. This jaw is incomplete and lacks teeth. Broca saw in her signs of a lower type - in the sloping back of the chin and the larger size of the cells (alveoli) of the posterior molars; but a similar type of lower jaw is found on many modern skulls of savages. The latest find of this kind is a fragment of the lower jaw obtained by Prof. Mashka in the Shipka cave, near Stromberg, in Moravia, at a depth of 1.4 m, in the Paleolithic cultural layer. era. This fragment consists of a middle part with 4 incisors, 1 canine and 2 false-rooted teeth, with the last three teeth being in the eruption stage, i.e., indicating an age of 8-10 years, while the size of the jaw does not differ from the size of the jaw of an adult man, a fact that forced Schaffhausen and Quatrefage to suggest in this case a special breed of giants who, already in adolescence, reached the height of modern adults. But Virchow showed that in this case one should see rather a pathological phenomenon - a delay in the development of teeth - and this explanation should be considered all the more correct since subsequently, in the same cave, another jaw was found that did not present any peculiarities. - From all this we can conclude that the oldest man, traces of which have so far been found on the soil of the West. Europe, represented all the signs of a real person, without any special features of animality, and at the same time showed several types in the shape of his skull, height, etc. This variety of types increased even more, apparently, in the Neolithic era , when new tribes penetrated into Europe from the East and South, bringing with them a higher culture.

Another question that involuntarily arises in relation to D. man is the question of his antiquity. Geologically, the oldest traces of man on the soil of Europe coincide with the Ice Age, especially with its end; but the chronological determination of this end presents considerable difficulties. In all attempts of this kind there is a lot of arbitrariness, based on shaky and dubious data. Thus, Horner, guided by observations of sedimentation in the Nile Delta, determined the antiquity of the clay shards found in it, at a depth of 11.9 m, to be 11,646 years. Bennett-Dowler, based on similar considerations regarding the deposition of sediments in the Mississippi delta, calculated the antiquity of the people found in it at a considerable depth. remains of 57,000 l. Ferri, examining sediments along the banks of the Saône, consisting of layers of clay, 3-4 m thick, lying on blue marls and containing various remains of the historical and ancient era, came to the conclusion that for the Bronze Age an antiquity of 3000 years can be put , for the Neolithic age - from 4 to 5 thousand years, for blue marls - from 9 to 10 thousand years. Morle, based on observations of the sediments of the Tignieres stream, which flows into Lake Geneva, estimated the antiquity of the Roman remains at 1600-1800 years, the Bronze Age - from 2900 to 4200 years, the Neolithic era - from 4700 to 7000 years. Guilleron and Troyon determined the antiquity of some pile structures of Lake Neuenburg to be 3300-6700 years old. As for the Paleolithic era and the Ice Age, their antiquity must go back to much more distant times. Vivian estimated the period of time required for the deposition of a layer of stalagmites in the Kent Cave (in England), covering the remains of extinct pachyderms and flint products of Paleolithic man, as 364,000 years. Mortillier puts the duration of the Paleolithic age at 222,000 years, and the entire period since the first traces of man in Europe at 230-240 thousand years. Finally, Kroll determined the duration of the period of greatest development of glaciers between 850,000 and 240,000 BC. Let us note, however, that in relation to the Paleolithic era, or to the age of the mammoth and reindeer, some researchers tend to be content with much smaller numbers of years. Reindeer could live in the West. Europe at the beginning of the historical era; some attribute to him the testimony of Yu. Caesar about some kind of “deer-looking bull” (bos cervi figura), which was found in his time in the Hercynian forest. The antiquity of the mammoth, at least in Siberia, could also not be very remote. In any case, the above chronological definitions must be treated with great caution, although there is no doubt that tens of thousands of years must have passed since the end of the Ice Age in Europe.

It is known that hallmark The great ape represents a representative of the human race in terms of brain mass, namely 750 g. This is how much is necessary for a child to master speech. Ancient people spoke in a primitive language, but their speech is a qualitative difference between the highest nervous activity as a person from the instinctive behavior of animals. The word, which became a designation for actions, labor operations, objects, and subsequently general concepts, acquired the status of the most important means of communication.

Stages of human development

It is known that there are three of them, namely:

• the oldest representatives of the human race;
• modern generation.

This article is devoted exclusively to the 2nd of the above stages.

History of Ancient Man

About 200 thousand years ago, the people we call Neanderthals appeared. They occupied an intermediate position between representatives of the most ancient family and the first modern man. Ancient people were a very heterogeneous group. Study large number skeletons allowed us to conclude that, in the process of evolution of Neanderthals, against the background of structural diversity, 2 lines were determined. The first was focused on powerful physiological development. Visually, the most ancient people were distinguished by a low, strongly sloping forehead, a low back of the head, a poorly developed chin, a continuous supraorbital ridge, and large teeth. They had very powerful muscles, despite the fact that their height was no more than 165 cm. The mass of their brain had already reached 1500 g. Presumably, ancient people used rudimentary articulate speech.

The second line of Neanderthals had more refined features. They had significantly smaller brow ridges, a more developed chin protuberance, and thin jaws. We can say that the second group was significantly inferior in physical development first. However, they already showed a significant increase in the volume of the frontal lobes of the brain.

The second group of Neanderthals fought for their existence through the development of intra-group connections in the process of hunting, protection from an aggressive natural environment, enemies, in other words, by combining the forces of individual individuals, and not through the development of muscles, like the first.

As a result of this evolutionary path, the species Homo sapiens appeared, which translates as “Homo sapiens” (40-50 thousand years ago).

It is known that for a short period of time the life of ancient man and the first modern man was closely interconnected. Subsequently, the Neanderthals were finally supplanted by the Cro-Magnons (the first modern people).

Types of ancient people

Due to the vastness and heterogeneity of the group of hominids, it is customary to distinguish the following varieties of Neanderthals:

• antique ( early representatives, who lived 130-70 thousand years ago);
• classical (European forms, the period of their existence 70-40 thousand years ago);
• survivalists (lived 45 thousand years ago).

Neanderthals: daily life, activities

Fire played an important role. For many hundreds of thousands of years, man did not know how to make fire himself, which is why people supported the one that was formed due to a lightning strike or a volcanic eruption. Moving from place to place, the fire was carried in special “cages” by the strongest people. If it was not possible to save the fire, then this quite often led to the death of the entire tribe, since they were deprived of a means of heating in the cold, a means of protection from predatory animals.

Subsequently, they began to use it for cooking food, which turned out to be more tasty and nutritious, which ultimately contributed to the development of their brain. Later, people themselves learned to make fire by cutting sparks from stone into dry grass, quickly rotating a wooden stick in their palms, placing one end in a hole in dry wood. It was this event that became one of the most important achievements of man. It coincided in time with the era of great migrations.

The daily life of ancient man boiled down to the fact that everything primitive tribe hunted. For this purpose, men were engaged in the manufacture of weapons and stone tools: chisels, knives, scrapers, awls. Mostly males hunted and butchered the carcasses of killed animals, that is, all the hard work fell on them.

Female representatives processed skins and collected (fruits, edible tubers, roots, and branches for fire). This led to the emergence of a natural division of labor by gender.

To catch large animals, men hunted together. This required mutual understanding between primitive people. During the hunt, a driving technique was common: the steppe was set on fire, then the Neanderthals drove a herd of deer and horses into a trap - a swamp, an abyss. Next, all they had to do was finish off the animals. There was another technique: they shouted and made noise to drive the animals onto thin ice.

We can say that the life of ancient man was primitive. However, it was the Neanderthals who were the first to bury their dead relatives, laying them on their right side, placing a stone under their head and bending their legs. Food and weapons were left next to the body. Presumably they considered death to be a dream. Burials and parts of sanctuaries, for example, associated with the bear cult, became evidence of the emergence of religion.

Neanderthal tools

They differed slightly from those used by their predecessors. However, over time, the tools of ancient people became more complex. The newly formed complex gave rise to the so-called Mousterian era. As before, tools were made primarily of stone, but their shapes became more diverse, and the turning technique became more complex.

The main weapon preparation is a flake formed as a result of chipping from a core (a piece of flint that has special platforms from which the chipping was carried out). This era was characterized by approximately 60 types of weapons. All of them are variations of 3 main ones: scraper, rubeltsa, pointed tip.

The first is used in the process of butchering an animal carcass, processing wood, and tanning hides. The second is a smaller version of the hand axes of the previously existing Pithecanthropus (they were 15-20 cm in length). Their new modifications had a length of 5-8 cm. The third weapon had a triangular outline and a point at the end. They were used as knives for cutting leather, meat, wood, and also as daggers and tips of darts and spears.

In addition to the listed species, Neanderthals also had the following: scrapers, incisors, piercings, notched, and serrated tools.

Bone also served as the basis for their manufacture. Very few fragments of such specimens have survived to this day, and entire tools can be seen even less frequently. Most often these were primitive awls, spatulas, and points.

The tools differed depending on the types of animals that Neanderthals hunted, and, consequently, on the geographic region and climate. Obviously, African tools were different from European ones.

Climate of the area where Neanderthals lived

The Neanderthals were less fortunate with this. They experienced a strong cold snap and the formation of glaciers. Neanderthals, unlike Pithecanthropus, who lived in an area similar to the African savanna, lived rather in the tundra and forest-steppe.

It is known that the first ancient man, just like his ancestors, mastered caves - shallow grottoes, small canopies. Subsequently, buildings appeared, located in open space (at a site on the Dniester, the remains of a dwelling made from the bones and teeth of a mammoth were found).

Hunting of ancient people

Neanderthals mainly hunted mammoths. He did not live to this day, but everyone knows what this beast looks like, since rock paintings with its image were found, painted by people of the Late Paleolithic. In addition, archaeologists have found the remains (sometimes even the entire skeleton or carcasses in permafrost soil) of mammoths in Siberia and Alaska.

To catch such a large animal, the Neanderthals had to work hard. They dug pit traps or drove the mammoth into a swamp so that it would get stuck in it, then finish it off.

Also a game animal was the cave bear (it is 1.5 times larger than our brown one). If a large male rose on his hind legs, then he reached 2.5 m in height.

Neanderthals also hunted bison, bison, reindeer, and horses. From them it was possible to obtain not only the meat itself, but also bones, fat, and skin.

Methods of making fire by Neanderthals

There are only five of them, namely:

1. fire plow. This is a fairly fast method, but requires significant physical effort. The essence is to move a wooden stick along the board by pressing hard. The result is shavings, wood powder, which, due to the friction of wood against wood, heats up and smolders. At this point, it is combined with highly flammable tinder, then the fire is fanned.

2. Fire drill. The most common way. A fire drill is a wooden stick that is used to drill into another stick (a wooden plank) located on the ground. As a result, smoldering (smoking) powder appears in the hole. Next, it is poured onto the tinder, and then the flame is fanned. Neanderthals first rotated the drill between their palms, and later the drill (with its upper end) was pressed against the tree, covered with a belt and pulled alternately on each end of the belt, rotating it.

3. Fire pump. This is a fairly modern, but rarely used method.

4. Fire saw. It is similar to the first method, but the difference is that the wooden plank is sawed (scraped) across the fibers, and not along them. The result is the same.

5. Carving fire. This can be done by hitting one stone against another. As a result, sparks are formed that fall on the tinder, subsequently igniting it.

Finds from the Skhul and Jebel Qafzeh caves

The first is located near Haifa, the second is in the south of Israel. They are both located in the Middle East. These caves are famous for the fact that human remains (skeletal remains) were found in them, which were closer to modern people than to the ancients. Unfortunately, they belonged to only two individuals. The age of the finds is 90-100 thousand years. In this regard, we can say that a person modern look coexisted with Neanderthals for many millennia.

Conclusion

The world of ancient people is very interesting and has not yet been fully studied. Perhaps, over time, new secrets will be revealed to us that will allow us to look at it from a different point of view.

Today, thanks to the work of archaeologists, it is possible to reconstruct the entire history of human development. Since most of the skeletons belonging to the era of interest to us were found on the African continent, scientists recognize this territory as the historical homeland of primitive people - Australopithecus and, later, Homo habilis. Stone tools appeared about 2-2.5 million years ago, which allows historians to consider this time as a kind of starting point.

Unlike his ancestors, a “skillful” person - using primitive tools - moves confidently on his feet, and his hands can not only hold a stone or a stick, but also use them as the first primitive tools. However, this is where the differences between homo sapiens and australopithecus end: they also communicate through screams, exclamations and gestures.

Even after a million years, the creature, which historians call “upright man,” still resembled a monkey not only in appearance - it was covered with hair, had the appropriate shape of its head and arms - but also in its habits. Despite this, the brain of the “straightened man” increased significantly in size, which affected his abilities: he could make tools intended for different purposes: catch and kill animals, butcher their carcasses, dig the ground, cut wooden sticks.

Thanks to the developed skills, man was able to survive the Ice Age and move from the African continent to Java, the North and Europe. The “straightened” man began to hunt elephants and deer and use fire, which warmed him and protected him from predatory animals.

Due to the increasing complexity of human activity, homo sapiens - “reasonable man” or, as he is also called, Neanderthal - appeared 250 thousand years ago. Intelligent people first began to use the high caves in which bears spent the winter. Firstly, they easily obtained meat in this way, and secondly, they occupied caves in which they subsequently lived in large groups.

It was during this period that strong family relationships began to develop. They began to bury dead people with special rituals, surrounding the graves with stones and flowers. The skeletons found allowed scientists to determine that “intelligent” people tried to cure sick or injured relatives by sharing food with them and caring for them.

Rituals and rituals were also characteristic of everyday life: animal skulls arranged in a special order were found in caves.

Since it is impossible to trace exactly how their “transformation” into modern people took place. In Latin, he is also called homo sapiens sapiens or “twice intelligent” man and his appearance is associated with stone age. A person of this species no longer had practically anything in common with a monkey - his arms became shorter, his forehead became higher, and a chin appeared.

Stone tools were replaced by bone ones. In general, in his use there were about 150 types of tools for different purposes. However, animal bones were used not only for making tools. People built houses from massive bones and wore animal teeth as decorations.

It is obvious that people's lives directly depended on animals: primitive communities followed the herds that migrated south. For hunting they used a spear and a bow, and for the construction of primitive dwellings they used not only bones, but also animal skins.

Despite the abundance of biographies and knowledge about historical figures, the common man rarely thinks about his ancestors, who were at the very foundation of life on Earth. Some imagine them to be creatures that are externally and intellectually similar to animals, while others believe that ancient people were smarter than today. Among the many scientific theories and their own guesses, humanity simply cannot create a single idea about the primitive inhabitants of the planet. Films about primitive (ancient) people on the list of the best will help you acquire clear knowledge.

10,000 BC (2008)
In a distant mountain tribe, the young hunter D'Leh found his love - the beauty Evolet. But when a mysterious warrior tribe attacked the village and kidnapped Evolet, D'Leh had no choice but to lead a small group of hunters to follow these lords of war even to the very ends of the world in order to save his beloved. Driven by fate, a band of inept warriors must battle saber-tooth tigers and prehistoric predators, and at the end of a heroic journey, find the Lost Civilization.

Genre: fantasy, action, drama, adventure, history
Budget: $105 000 000
Premiere (world): February 22, 2008
Premiere (Russian Federation): March 13, 2008, “Karo-Premier”
A country: USA, South Africa

Starring: Steven Strait, Camilla Belle, Cliff Curtis, Joel Virgil Virseth, Affif Ben Badra, Mo Zinal, Nathaniel Baring, Mona Hammond, Marco Hanlian, Rhys Ritchie

Ten Boats (2006)
This story happened in Australia long before anyone set foot on the continent. white man. The title of the film refers the viewer to one of the storylines: an Aboriginal tribe makes 10 canoes and sets out on them along the river to collect goose eggs. During the journey, one of them - the warrior Daindi - tells a story about love and jealousy. All this is done in order to force Daindi’s older brother, who is harassing the hero’s wife, to take the right path.

Ten Boats / Ten Canoes (2006)

Genre: drama, comedy, adventure
Budget: AUD 2,200,000
Premiere (world): March 19, 2006
A country: Australia

Starring: Crusoe Kurddal, Jamie Gulpilil, Richard Birrinbirrin, Peter Minigululu, Francis Juilibing, David Gulpilil, Sonia Jarrabalminim, Cassandra Malangarry Baker, Philip Gadtaykudtai, Peter Jigirr

One Million Years BC (2004)
The events of the film take place 35 thousand years ago, into the prehistoric era. The two neighboring tribes live peacefully, but there are significant differences between them. The Clean Hair tribe is thriving and does not give out the shampoo formula to anyone, while the Dirty Hair tribe is moaning and itching. One night, a terrible thing happens in the Pure Hair tribe: for the first time in the history of mankind, a murder is committed. Never before had a person killed a person, and in this case it was also a woman.

Genre: fantasy, comedy, crime
Budget: € 17 820 000
Premiere (world): January 28, 2004
A country: France

Starring: Marina Fois, Gerard Depardieu, Damien Joiroux, Samir Guesmi, Cyril Casmese, Jean Rochefort, Gilles Conseil, Patrick Medioni, Michel Bui, Christian Bergner

One Million Years BC 2 (2007)
An imaginary island in the blue, blue Aegean Sea. Bizarre twisted rocks, quarrelsome pebbles. And then - a mysterious green forest, primeval, as if in a dream. To the south of it is a village with beehive huts. Its inhabitants are a people with funny customs. They live freely in the company of a powerful sow and a herd of her relatives, as well as a poet capable of enchanting the gods, and the beautiful daughter of an elder, for whom all the centaurs are crazy. The time of action is long before the era of Homer...

Genre: fantasy, comedy
Budget: €30 400 000
Premiere (world): October 10, 2007
Premiere (Russian Federation): January 10, 2008, “Central Partnership”
A country: France, Spain

Starring: Jose Garcia, Vincent Cassel, Sergio Peris-Mencheta, Mélanie Bernier, Claude Brasseur, Rufus, Jean-Luc Bidot, Taira, Marc Andreoni, Bernard Heller

The Last Neanderthal (2010)
The plot of the film tells us the story of the main character of the film, a Neanderthal named Ao, who, having returned to his native caves, sees there the dead bodies of his wife, child and other members of the clan. Realizing that everything dear to him in life has been lost, Ao begins a long journey to the distant lands of the South. There he hopes to find his only brother, with whom he separated many years ago. On his terribly dangerous path, he is forced to constantly fight for survival, many difficulties await him, and soon he meets the woman Aki.

Genre: adventure, history
Premiere (world): September 29, 2010
A country: France

Starring: Agie, Helmy Dridi, Ilian Ivanov, Vesela Kazakova, Sarah Malathier, Craig Morris, Aruna Shields, Simon Paul Sutton, Yavor Veselinov

Clan of the Cave Bear (1986)
Adventure drama nominated for an Oscar for Best Makeup. The events of the film unfold in prehistoric Europe. After a terrible earthquake, a tribe of primitive people - the Cro-Magnons - became extinct. Only one girl survived, Aila. She was found and sheltered by less developed Neanderthals from the Cave Bear family. Aila didn't look like her new family in appearance, and the girl’s blond hair terrified those closest to her. With her mental abilities and ingenuity, Aila.

The Clan of the Cave Bear (1986)

Genre: fantasy, drama, adventure
Budget: $15 000 000
Premiere (world): January 17, 1986
A country: USA

Starring: Daryl Hannah, Pamela Reed, James Remar, Thomas J. Waits, John Dolittle, Curtis Armstrong, Martin Doyle, Adel Hammoud, Tony Montanaro, Mike Muscat

The Lost World (2009)
Dr. Rick Marshall conducts time travel experiments. Together with his student Holly and his friend Will, the doctor goes to a cave with high tachyon activity to test his device there. After the accelerator worked, they fell into a time vortex, which took them to another universe. They find themselves in the tropics, where a wide variety of animals live: from dinosaurs to the most unusual creatures from different time periods.

Genre: fantasy, comedy, adventure
Budget: $100 000 000
Premiere (world): June 5, 2009
Premiere (Russian Federation): June 11, 2009, UPI
A country: USA

Starring: Will Ferrell, Anna Friel, Danny McBride, Jorma Taccone, John Boylan, Matt Lauer, Bobby J. Thompson, Sierra McCormick, Shannon Lemke, Stevie Walsh Jr.

The Croods (2013)
The Croods family is the most ordinary average family, living by its own rules and traditions. It's true they don't live in modern world, and in prehistoric times, when people had practically nothing and they were pioneers. However, the head of the family always believed that everything new and unknown contained great danger, so they did not explore the world around them, but lived quietly in their native places. But soon there was an earthquake that destroyed their house.

Genre: cartoon, fantasy, comedy, adventure, family
Budget: $135 000 000
Premiere (world): February 15, 2013
Premiere (Russian Federation): March 21, 2013, “Twentieth Century Fox CIS” 3D
A country: USA

Starring: Nicolas Cage, Emma Stone, Ryan Reynolds, Catherine Keener, Cloris Leachman, Clark Duke, Chris Sanders, Randy Tom

Almost like people (2009)
A French professor-anthropologist finds information that a Soviet scientist, even before the Second World War, discovered a Neanderthal skull in the Alps, not 100,000 years old as it should be, but only 300 years old! The scientist died in the crucible of war and everyone forgot about his discovery. A French scientist decides to go on an expedition to the Alps to prove the fact that Neanderthals could survive to this day. He takes his son and his former student on the expedition. On a mountain road they pick up a family of tourists.

Genre: horror, action, thriller, adventure
Budget: €6 000 000
Premiere (world): April 11, 2009
A country: France, Switzerland, Luxembourg

Starring: Sarah Forestier, Laurent Deutsch, Dominique Pinon, Manon Tournier, Elise Otzenberger, Philippe Nahon, Christian Kmiotek, Marc Ohlinger, Marie-Pauly von Rösgen, Catherine Robert

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Battle for Fire (1981)
The plot of the film takes us to the distant past, to the Paleolithic era. In one of the cave tribes, a terrible event occurred - the fire in the cave, which they had maintained for a long time, went out. Since people could not learn to kindle it, they had to go in search of it, because without it the existence of the tribe is simply impossible. However, there were no people willing to make the dangerous journey, since everyone understood that it was mortally dangerous.

The Battle for the Fire / La guerre du feu (1981)

Genre: drama, adventure, history
Budget: $12 500 000
Premiere (world): December 16, 1981
A country: Canada, France, USA

Starring: Everett McGill, Ron Perlman, Nicholas Kadi, Rae Dawn Chong, Gary Schwartz, Nasir El Kadi, Frank-Olivier Bonnet, Jean-Michel Kindt, Kurt Schiegl, Brian Gill

Caveman (1981)
Atuk is an outcast in his tribe, constantly subject to ridicule and bullying. He is unrequitedly in love with Lana, the girlfriend of the brutal leader of the Tonda tribe. Expelled along with his friend Lar, Atuk comes across a group of the same losers, among whom are the pretty Tala and the blind old man Gog. The group encounters hungry dinosaurs and saves Lara from the "coming ice age" while encountering Bigfoot. During their adventures they discover drugs, fire, cooking, music.

Caveman (1981)

Genre: fantasy, comedy
Premiere (world): April 17, 1981
A country: USA

Starring: Ringo Starr, Dennis Quaid, Shelley Long, Jack Gilford, Cork Hubbert, Mark King, Paco Morayta, Evan S. Kim, Ed Greenberg, Carl Lumbly

When dinosaurs ruled the earth (1970)
A million years BC, when dinosaurs reigned on the earth, a tribe of rock dwellers sacrificed blonde girls to the sun god. One day, on the day of the sacrifice, there was a terrible flash in the sun, from which a terrible storm arose, during which the next victim, Sanna, escapes from her fellow tribesmen. The girl finds shelter in a neighboring tribe living in the sands, where she immediately wins the heart of the clever Tara, the leader of the tribe. For this, the dark-haired women of the sands expel their beautiful rival into the jungle.

When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth (1970)

Genre: science fiction, fantasy, melodrama, adventure
Budget:£566,000
Premiere (world): October 25, 1970
A country: Great Britain

Starring: Victoria Vetri, Robert Hawdon, Patrick Allen, Drewey Henley, Sean Caffrey, Magda Konopka, Imogen Hassall, Patrick Holt, Jean Rossini, Carol Hawkins

Lord of Iron (1983)
A long time ago, when the ancestors of modern man still lived in caves, a volcanic eruption brought to the earth's surface a black stone - hitherto unknown to human tribes. Neither wood nor bone could compete with weapons made from it. It fell into the hands of someone expelled from his tribe for the murder of his father-chief Voodoo. And the exile became the ruler of all the tribes living in the valley. To maintain power, Wood promises his supporters to conquer the entire earth. Only Ella decided to challenge Voodoo.

The Lord of Iron / La guerra del ferro: Ironmaster (1983)

Genre: action, adventure
Premiere (world): March 10, 1983
A country: Italy, France

Starring: Sam Pascoe, Elvira Audre, George Eastman, Pamela Prati, Jacques Erlen, Danilo Mattei, Benito Stefanelli, Areno D'Adderio, Giovanni Cianfriglia, Nello Pazzafini

BBC: Walking With caveman(TV series) (2003)
Together with Professor Robert Winston, we will go on an exciting journey through time to trace the history of human evolution. Over the course of four episodes, we will have to observe how prehistoric society developed, what features of life were characteristic of our distant ancestors. The creators of the documentary series “BBC: Walking with a Caveman” used a minimal amount of special effects in their film, and professional actors played primitive people.

BBC: Walking with a Caveman (TV series) / Walking with Cavemen (2003)

Genre: documentary, history
Premiere (world): March 27, 2003
A country: Great Britain

Starring: Professor Robert Winston, Alec Baldwin, Christian Bradley, Alex Palmer, Ollie Parham, David Rubin, Florence Spareham, Marwa Alexander, Rachel Essex, Farok Khan

Cave of Forgotten Dreams (2010)
Chauvet Cave in the south of France is closed to the public because its more than 300 animal paintings are the oldest examples of cave art in the world and any noticeable change in humidity in the cave could damage them. Few archaeologists have the right of access, only for a few hours and subject to restrictions. And only four members film crew received special permission from the French Minister of Culture to film this film.

Genre: documentary, history
Premiere (world): September 10, 2010
Premiere (Russian Federation): December 15, 2011, “NevaFilm Emotion” 3D
A country: Canada, USA, France, Germany, UK

Starring: Werner Herzog, Jean Clottes, Julien Monny, Jean-Michel Genest, Michel Philippe, Gilles Tosello, Carole Fritz, Dominique Buffier, Valérie Feruglio, Nicholas Conrad

Primitive Man's Odyssey (TV) (2003)
The new work of Canadian documentarians presents in its entirety the history of Man from his first steps millions of years ago to the era of Homo sapiens. Opportunities of modern computer graphics allowed the authors to show the life of our ancient ancestors in such a way in a fantastic way that there is a feeling of complete reality of what is happening. This unique film magical journey through time, step by step along the chain of events will provide a unique opportunity for the viewer to see the process of formation of the intelligence of our civilization.

Odyssey of Primitive Man (TV) / L "odyssée de l"espèce (2003)

Genre: documentary
Premiere (world): January 7, 2003
A country: France, Canada, Italy, Switzerland, Belgium

Starring: Pere Arquiluet, Peter Batakliev, Léa-Marie Cantin, Emmanuel Charest, Hugo Dube, Annie Dufresne, Nathalie Gagnon, Stéphanie Gagnon, Alain Gendreau, Raphael Lajeunesse

BBC: Primal America (TV) (2002)
Brief summary of the film "BBC: Primitive America". North America XXI century. People reached the most remote corners of the continent and significantly expanded their borders modern technologies. However, man first set foot on these lands not so long ago, only 14 thousand years ago. At that time, North America belonged to other creatures, the size of which corresponded to its vast territories. These were real giants, swift and ferocious, whose lives are now lost in the centuries.

BBC: Primal America (TV) / Wild New World (2002)

Genre: documentary
A country: Great Britain

Homo Sapiens - Homo sapiens (TV) (2005)
The first man appeared on the planet 250 thousand years ago, thereby marking the beginning human civilization. Time passed. The struggle for survival undoubtedly influenced human development. The human brain turned out to be designed in such a wonderful way that it allowed not only to accumulate information, but also to use it for one’s own purposes, which made people stand out from the entire animal community of the planet. We can say that it was at that moment that Homo sapiens became truly thinking. Man learned to tame animals.

Homo Sapiens - Homo sapiens (TV) / Homo sapiens (2005)

Genre: documentary
Premiere (world): January 11, 2005
A country: France

Starring: Philip Torreton, Mourad Ben Nefla, Natasha Rees-Davies

Before We Conquered the Earth (TV series) (2003)
The documentary series "Before We Conquered the Earth" takes you back in time and tells in detail what our planet was like, as well as the creatures that lived at that time, including primitive people. About 1.7 million years ago, our planet was a wild place, untouched by either civilization or technological progress. Only nature dominated its territory - clear raging rivers, seas and oceans, impenetrable forests, vast green fields and high, impenetrable mountains.

Before We Ruled the Earth (TV series) / Before We Ruled the Earth (2003)

Genre: documentary
Premiere (world): February 9, 2003
A country: USA

Starring: Linda Hunt, John Slattery, Ben Cotton, Caroline Chan, Tom Heaton, Ian Marsh, Phillip Mitchell, Akiko Morison, Shirley Ng, Nathaniel Arcano