Chuvash Encyclopedia. Ethnogenesis of the Chuvash people, characteristics of hypotheses

Most Chuvash still live in villages (yal). In the northern regions of the Chuvash Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, which are older in settlement, villages are usually located in clusters, often including up to a dozen villages. In the southern part of the republic, settled later, the distribution of villages is more even. The names of most northern villages have the prefix pasa, which means the end, or settlement. In the southern regions, names with such a prefix are not found, but many villages are settlements from ancient northern settlements.

Here they bear the names of old villages with the addition - Novoye, Polevoe, etc. Southern villages are usually larger than northern ones (sometimes up to 500-800 households; in the northern ones - 80-100 households).

In the north, the village is typically divided into ends (kasas), usually inhabited by related families. Street layout has been spreading since the 2nd half of the 19th century.

A traditional hut (purt, surt) was placed in the center of the front yard with an entrance to the east and windows to the south, heated in a black adobe stove (kamaka) at the rear blank wall. There were bunks along the walls. From the 2nd half of the 19th century.

Previously, when setting up a residential building, the orientation towards the sunny side was mandatory. It was often placed inside the estate with an entrance facing east and a window to the south, regardless of the orientation of the estate in relation to the street. Nowadays, new houses are usually built with the façade facing the street, and windows are cut in them in accordance with the internal layout.

The main type of house (purt), both before and now, is a log four-wall, cut into a cup. Recently, the five-walled structure has become increasingly widespread, better suited to the needs of collective farmers. The log house is usually placed on oak chairs;

the space between the chairs is taken up with short logs or blocks, which are placed under the lower crown of the frame across the wall. Each house has an underground with a depth of about 1.5 m. The height of the frame from the floor to the mat (maccha) varies from 2 to 2.3 m, and in new large houses even reaches 3 m. A four-walled structure most often has three windows in the front and two in the side wall; a five-wall structure has more windows, and they are usually located on three sides of the house.

According to the traditions of many nations, building one’s own home was a matter of honor for every man. It was believed that a real man should build a house, raise a child and plant a tree. Of course, first - a house, so that there is somewhere to raise a child and something to plant a tree near. The word “man” can be translated into the Chuvash language by two terms çyn and etem. This means man as a biological being, as part of the animal world, çyn is already real man

, part of human society. An old Chuvash proverb says: “Çynshutnekĕres tesen etemĕn kil-çurtçavărmalla” (If you want to be considered a human being, build a house).

Origin of the term "house". The term “house” can be translated into three words in the Chuvash language:

1. Çurt is a word known in many Turkic languages. For example: in Altai, Turkish, Old Uzbek and other languages ​​- yurt - dwelling, site, country.

2. Pÿrt is a word borrowed from the Baltic languages. For example, in the Lithuanian language - pirtis - bathhouse. 3. Kil is an ancient Bulgarian word with a history of more than a thousand years. In ancient times it could mean “yard, village, settlement, city.” More than a thousand years ago, the city of Sarkel existed on the Don River. This name was deciphered using Chuvash language: Sarkel - shură kil (

The word kil is consonant with another Chuvash word kil (come, go), denoting movement in the direction “towards oneself, towards the speaker,” in contrast to the word pyr (come, go) - movement “from oneself, from the speaker.” Kil kunta - “come here”, but in Chuvash you cannot say “pyrkunta”, you can say “unta pyr” - “come there”. Probably, once in ancient times the word kil meant a place to which one always returns. This is, of course, home.

Place to build a house. The place for the construction of the future house was carefully chosen, usually by old people. There had to be a spring nearby or a place where a well could be dug. It was impossible to build a house on “unclean” places - a former bathhouse, cemetery, kiremetkarti, etc.

Materials for building a house. For all nations, the main material for building a house was the material that was available in abundance in that area. For the Volga region of those times, this was a tree.

But clay and stone could be used for buildings. Their use was most likely associated with the observance of traditions, since in the ancient states of the ancestors of the Chuvash, adobe houses, stone fortresses, and palaces were built.

For adobe buildings, bricks were made from a mixture of clay and straw. This mixture was thoroughly mixed, blocks were made from it and dried in the sun.

Then the finished blocks were used to build walls, holding them together with clay. Another type of clay buildings has a very ancient history and was used in the past by many peoples, especially those living in warm climates. The walls were woven from strong rods and coated with clay. After drying, the structure was ready. Such buildings were cheap, but short-lived in our climate. After heavy rains and winter frosts, they had to be constantly repaired.

Foundation, walls, windows, doors of the house. In the spring, a log house (pura) was made from logs, picking and sawing them off. Over the summer, the wood of the log house dried out. In the fall or the next year, the log house was dismantled and rebuilt on the foundation (nikĕs). The foundation consists of four stones or pieces of oak logs placed in the corners of the future house.

Having installed the first logs (crowns) - yon, they dug the underground (sakai). At a height of 2-3 crowns, three large logs - urat - were cut down and the floor (urai) was laid from strong hewn boards. An entrance to the underground was left near the wall (under the future bunks). Then the frame was raised completely, laying dry moss between the logs.

Cutouts for windows and doors were left in the walls. They tried to make the window small so that heat would not escape through it and thieves-robbers and wild animals would not be able to climb in. Instead of glass, cleaned and dried bovine bladder film was used. Occasionally, mica, a transparent layered material, was inserted into window frames. Of course, only weak sunlight passed through such windows. At night and in cold weather, the window was closed with a shutter.

Modern people may think that it is very inconvenient and bad to have such small windows. This is precisely what seemed very convenient to our ancestors.

A person spent most of his time outside the house, working in the yard or field, and on cold winter days, when they worked a lot indoors, the house got dark very quickly, and in any case it was necessary to turn on the lights.

Roof and ceiling of the house. First, the frame was completely raised and at the same time the upper triangular part was installed - the pediment (shitme) and the poles for the roof. Later, the pediment began to be made from boards.

For the roof (vitĕ, tără, çi) they could use bark (khup), straw (ulăm), split logs up to 2 meters long (chĕrenche) and wooden stumps up to 50 cm long (turpas), boards (khăma).

The ceiling (tope, machcha) was made from halves of logs or thick hewn boards. In those days it was almost impossible to make a long and thin board; now this is done using a sawmill mechanism. Therefore, it was easier to split the logs and cut off one side, and besides, there was still an abundance of forests at that time.

Later, the boards were cut using a vertical saw.

A matitsa (părăs, machchakashti) - a strong log - was installed in the upper part of the wall and the ceiling was laid on it. The ends of the ceiling boards were cut into the logs of the walls. According to another option, the ceiling was made of short boards and their ends were cut into the walls and matrix. Earth and leaves were poured into the attic so that the heat would not escape. Additions to houses. If necessary, a porch, canopy, closet (paltăr), etc. could be attached to houses. Later, houses began to be connected to some outbuildings - barns, cages.

For large families, another hut was built and both houses were connected by a canopy or porch.

IN

Currently, the decoration of Chuvash homes has received significant development.

If previously only wealthy peasants decorated their houses, now all collective farmers have this opportunity.

Saw threads are widely used in the exterior design of residential buildings. The polychrome coloring is also preserved.

As a result, the Chuvash house received a three-part structure: hut - canopy - cage.

After collectivization, when the financial situation of the peasants improved sharply, the Chuvash began to build new types of houses and rebuild old ones. Housing construction expanded especially widely in the post-war period.

They are building, as before, four- and five-wall buildings, but they are planned differently.

Chuvash house inside.

Scientists of past centuries noted that all the houses of the Chuvash, both poorer and richer, were very similar. This also happened because, according to ancient traditions, the internal structure of a Chuvash house resembled the structure of the whole world. And, of course, the arrangement of items in the house was the most convenient for a large family to live and keep warm in the winter. Until now, old houses in many Chuvash villages have just such a device.

Home interior. There was nothing superfluous in the interior of a Chuvash house, only the essentials for work and leisure, especially in winter.

Furniture (sĕtel-pukan) was made of wood and decorated with carvings. The most necessary and universal piece of furniture was the bunk (sak). They were made and cut into the walls immediately after the construction of the house. Chuvash bunks, about 1.5 meters wide, were very convenient for both work and relaxation. The whole family slept on them, laying pillows (citar, minter), feather beds or mattresses (tyushek). All kinds of utensils were stored under the bunks. In cold weather, small children were not allowed on the floor, and they played on wide bunks all day long.

Under the bunks in the heat there was an entrance to the underground.

To get down there, the upper part of the bunk was raised. In ancient times, the Chuvash, like others, peoples of the Volga region

, the table (sĕtel) was no higher than the bunk and was used on special occasions, for example, during prayers and holidays. This is confirmed by the special attitude of the Chuvash to the table. You cannot sit on it, knock on it, or put dirty things on it.

Other pieces of furniture include various benches (sak, tenkel), shelves (çÿlĕk, sentre), chests (archa, suntăkh), bed (putmar), chairs (pukan, tenkel).

During the holidays, the house was decorated: the bunks were covered with felt, pillows were laid out for sitting, and the table was covered with an embroidered tablecloth (elme).

Bake. The largest and most important interior item in the house was the stove (kămaka).

Like all peoples of the Volga region, stoves could be of two types: “white” and “black”.

The “white” stove had a pipe, and through it the smoke came out. The “black” stove did not have such a pipe, and smoke entered the room. From it, the ceiling and the upper part of the walls became covered with soot and became black. During the firing of the “black” stove, special (volokova) windows (tĕnĕ) were opened near the door and the stove, and smoke came out through them.

To build a “black” adobe oven, a log house was erected, a layer of clay was placed on it and half of a hollow wooden stump was placed. Clay and stones were stuffed on top. After drying, a fire was lit, and the hollow burned, simultaneously burning the roof of the stove.

The best firewood was oak and birch. They retained heat longer and did not produce sparks dangerous for a wooden house.

Lamps.

In ancient times, candles (çurta), oil lamps (shantal), and torches (khăyă) were used to illuminate the home. By the beginning of the 20th century, kerosene lamps began to be used.

Candles were made from wax, lard and thick thread or strip of fabric. A thread was pulled into a tube from the plant stem and melted wax was poured into it. After the wax hardened, the tube was chopped off - the candle was ready.

The majority of the peasant population of the Volga region used torches to illuminate their homes.

They were inserted into the lights (khăyăchikki).

In order to go out into the yard or barn in the evening, wooden lanterns (hunar) were made, into which candles were inserted.

The spirit of the house is khĕrtsurt. Many peoples had a belief about the existence of a special spirit in every human dwelling. Among the ancient Chuvash it was a good spirit - khĕrtsurt. He was represented as a girl or old woman living on or behind the stove. The hĕrtsurt was treated with great love and attention, like a member of the family. If the owners returned home from somewhere, then first of all they greeted the khĕrtsurt and put some kind of gift on the stove, only then they greeted the rest of the household and gave gifts to the children.

Every year they performed chuk for the khĕrtsurt - they prayed: they asked her to take care of the house, to protect her from ruin, from illnesses and all sorts of troubles. As a sacrifice, a pillow was placed on the stove, a cup with porridge and a spoon was placed on it, and a clean embroidered towel was covered.

Especially for khĕrtsurt, an embroidered towel was hung on the ulchayupi (or in the corner of the kĕrek); none of the household dared to touch it.

When a family moved to a new house, they always invited the hĕrtsurt with them; if they forgot to do this, it was believed that at night she cried in the old house.

Usually, when moving, an old bast shoe was tied to a cart with household things, and they believed that a hĕrtsurt was riding on it. The khĕrtsurt grieved greatly when there was a fire. They said that she could be seen sitting on the ashes of the house and crying.

Yĕrĕkh, tÿrkĕlly. Another creature that lived in the house could be yĕrĕkh (yărăkh) or tÿrkĕlly (tÿrĕ, tÿri). According to other sources, these spirits lived outside the house: in the hallway, in the barn, in an old tree, in an abandoned building.

Now it is difficult to determine whether yĕrĕkh and tÿrkĕlly are the same spirit with different names or two different spirits. Sometimes, in addition, these spirits were considered patrons of the family clan or images of ancestors and were called manakka, kinemei, ĕmpichche.

But in any case, it was believed that for disrespectful attitude towards them, these spirits could send skin, eye diseases, and tumors to people. They sacrificed money, porridge, cookies, and occasionally they slaughtered a sheep.

Yĕrĕkh could be depicted as a bunch of branches, a small figurine made of clay, wood or metal, or a doll in Chuvash attire.

Tÿrkĕli most often did not have any embodiment at all, or it was also a small doll. Sometimes this was the name for a surpan and a small bag, bucket or box hung in a barn, where sacrificial money was placed.

When a sufficient number of them were collected, animals were bought with them and a chuk was performed. The tradition of making small figurines of deities or images of ancestors from metal or clay goes back several thousand years and existed among many peoples of the globe. The new houses of the Chuvash already have modern furnishings. Many collective farmers have bookcases and wardrobes, radios, a large number of

In addition to the residential building and the cage, which was almost always combined with the house under one roof, on the Chuvash estate there were log buildings for livestock, sheds, a barn for storing grain, sometimes a bathhouse * and also a lad - a typical Chuvash building that served as a summer kitchen and place for making beer.

The cage was built from thick logs, on chairs, like residential buildings, with a good floor and ceiling, but no windows. The roof protruded over the log house* forming a canopy. Before the entrance to the cage there was a wide porch up to 0.5 m high, sometimes with two steps.

Barns were often made similar in type to a cage, but they were divided by a log partition into two rooms with separate entrances.

In one of them, grain reserves were stored in bottoms and tubs, in the other - household utensils, harnesses, etc.

Los is a small building made of thin logs or slabs, without a ceiling or windows. The roof was gable, made of shingles or planks, and often one slope was made higher than the other to create cracks for smoke to escape.

The floor is earthen. Inside there is an open hearth with a hanging boiler. Along the walls there are low earthen bunks, covered on the front side with boards or beams. Various household utensils were stored on bunks and shelves. Some families had a low plank table in one of the corners, at which they ate in the summer, sitting on bunks. This structure, apparently, was a relic of an ancient Chuvash dwelling, like the “kudo” among the Mari and the “kuala” among the Udmurts.

As already noted, in new estates the number of outbuildings has sharply decreased; even the cage disappears, being replaced by a closet in the entryway of the house*

A yard is an extension of a person’s home. This is the same as his own territory, but where, in addition to him, his pets live, his assistants are stored - tools and food supplies. And the life of the court has its own rules, which are followed by the spirit of the court.

Yard arrangement. According to Chuvash traditions, all lands belonging to one family were divided into several parts, mainly these were:

1. A yard with a house and various outbuildings (kil karti).

2. Threshing floor (tok) (yĕtem, avănkarti) - a place for processing the grain harvest.

3. Vegetable garden (pakhcha).

Later, these parts merged, and the Chuvash estate began to be divided into two halves: the front and back yard. In the front yard (kil karti) there was a house and the main outbuildings. In the backyard (ankarti) there was a vegetable garden (pakhcha), a threshing floor (yĕtem) and a bathhouse (muncha).

The yard could be of any shape, not necessarily square. The ancient Chuvash courtyard was large in size and could accommodate several modern village courtyards. Such a large size was needed for work, especially with horses. It was necessary for several carts to be able to enter the yard and turn around.

According to ancient Chuvash tradition the house was located in the center of a large spacious courtyard, with outbuildings around it at a certain distance from each other. The Chuvash tried their best to preserve trees in their yards and plant new ones. This decorated the yard and to some extent saved it from fires. Nesting and birdhouses for songbirds were specially built in the trees.

According to some legends, there were underground passages in the courtyards of wealthy Chuvash people.

Sometimes the yard was paved - completely covered with stones, hewn logs, or paths were laid out so that you could walk in the autumn mud without getting your feet dirty. In summer the yard was overgrown with grass. Many researchers noted the special order, cleanliness and comfort of the Chuvash courtyard.

Outbuildings. As ethnographers of past centuries noted, the farms of rich and poor Chuvash differed only in the number of buildings in the yard. These include: barn - outbuildings, sometimes united by one roof; ampar (usually two-story) and kĕlet - premises for storing things, some tools, stocks of grain and other products, as well as for living in the summer; laç - a room for cooking in the summer, making beer, washing and other needs; nÿkhrep - cellar, underground room for storing food; vite - barn, room for domestic animals;

păltăr - extension to the house; muncha—bath; aslăk - a shed in a barn for storing tools.

In the warm season, the Chuvash moved to live in summer dwellings - cages, second floors of barns, and each family, especially newlyweds, had its own room. In the summer, food was prepared in the laks; only bread was baked in the house. Thus, for the Chuvash, the concept of “house” is not only a hut, but also the entire yard, the entire household.

The households of the Russian population were much smaller in size. Often outbuildings were located very close to the house, and the entire yard was covered with one roof, which could be removed in the summer to allow the yard to dry out. Courtyards arranged in this way are still preserved in the city of Cheboksary, since the cities of Chuvashia were mainly inhabited by Russians until the 20th century.

The large size of the yard, its landscaping, special summer dwellings - all this indicates that the ancestors of the Chuvash once lived further south, in a warmer climate, in steppe or forest-steppe spaces.

A small courtyard, a hut as the only dwelling, the virtual absence of trees in the courtyard and in the villages shows that the ancestors of Russians in ancient times lived in areas overgrown with forest, where they had to “fight” it, making room for settlements.

Fences, gates. In ancient times, to protect against wild animals and robbers, the Chuvash yard was necessarily fenced with tall, pointed oak logs (tĕkme). They were dug into the ground close to each other around the entire yard, leaving space for the gate.

Other types of fences were used to protect crops or young trees from domestic animals.

Fence posts must be placed with the butt down, and during repairs, when the lower part of the post rotted, it should never be turned over.

Spirits of the Court. In addition to outbuildings, in the courtyard there was a special fenced place kĕlĕilen (mănĕlĕ), where sacrificial animals were slaughtered. Cattle and children were not allowed into this place, and the adults themselves once again tried not to trample the kĕlĕilen. After the animal was slaughtered, its blood was released onto the ground and left there - this was the share of the spirit of the kĕlĕilen.

Probably, in ancient times, the Chuvash in the place of kĕlĕilen always had a sacred tree called chÿkiyvaçe, at the foot of which the ashes of a burnt sacrifice were poured.

The ancient Chuvash believed that every courtyard has its own owner - the spirit of the courtyard. It could be called differently: turri card, huçi card, puçĕ card, sychi card, kĕtÿçĕ card, yrri card, kĕli card, yishĕ card. All these names are the name of the same spirit. It was believed that every building could have its own master spirits: kĕletriyră - the good spirit of the cage, nÿkhrepkĕli - the prayer spirit of the cellar, vitekhuçi (vuçni) - the master spirit of the barn, sarai iyi - the spirit of the barn. A chuk was performed to these spirits so that they would keep order in the yard and building, and also help the owners keep their pets. For example, it was believed that the spirit of the stable has his own favorite horses and he additionally feeds them, cleans them and braids their manes.

The continuation of the human habitat after the house and yard was the settlement, the village.

This territory usually limited the share of a person in the surrounding space.

This situation was typical for all peoples inhabiting the Volga region. And already outside his territory, man had to obey only the laws of nature.

Location and structure of settlements.

Chuvash villages were located near a river or lake; there was usually a forest nearby and always a spring with clean water. The Chuvash placed their houses in the most convenient places, surrounded by buildings and fences. After the son’s marriage, a house was built for the young family right there in the yard, but when there was no longer enough space, a new yard was built for other families next to the parents’ one. So gradually more and more new ones were added to the very first yard, other relatives and their grown-up children settled nearby, and so the village grew.

The streets and passages in the Chuvash village seemed to a stranger confusing and incomprehensible. And this served as a certain protection from thieves and robbers.

Since the 70s of the 19th century, by order of the government, the streets in all villages gradually began to be made straight, the size of the courtyards decreased, and houses were placed not in the center of the courtyard, but “facing” the street.

Researchers of past centuries wrote that the Chuvash village can be immediately recognized from afar - it was distinguished by its landscaping.

Trees were planted near houses, ravines, on the street, in vacant lots. Young seedlings were wrapped in pieces of bark, fenced off so that they would not be poisoned by animals, and they were carefully looked after.

The streets of Chuvash villages were kept clean and tidy. Each owner cleaned the area adjacent to his yard.

There was practically no garbage left on the peasant farm, but if this happened, it was not thrown out into the street, but carried into a deep ravine.

In the summer, the streets were overgrown with grass; children ran along them barefoot, without fear of hurting their feet, and calves grazed...

Springs and wells. There were always springs near every village. They were equipped and kept clean and tidy. In addition to springs, water could be taken from wells (pusă). Where possible, a well was built right in the yard.

Like most peoples of the Volga region, several types of wells were built.

Fencing.

In ancient times, the Chuvash fenced not only each yard, but the entire village.

According to scientists, the custom of fencing the entire village has been preserved since the times when the ancestors of the Chuvash, defending themselves from enemy attacks, built fortress walls, ramparts and ditches around their settlements. The Chuvash fenced their villages with a high fence made of logs - a palisade (tĕkme) from wild animals and robbers. Scheme of digging a well. The log house began to be installed from above. This prevented the earth from collapsing.

Later they began to make a fence from poles (vĕrlĕk karta).

In the outskirts (fence surrounding the village) a gate (yal khaphi) was built. Old men or boys were usually on duty around them - they opened and closed the gates. “Guard houses” were often set up for those on duty - small log houses in which

Cemeteries were also surrounded by a ditch or furrow through which its inhabitants could not cross. This enclosure of the cemetery also meant giving the world of the dead its own sacred territory.

According to ancient traditions, nothing could be taken out of the cemetery.

It was believed that the cemetery had its own spirit, looking after order - masarpuçlăkhĕ, çăvapuçlăkhĕ, usually this was the person who was the first to be buried in this cemetery.

Each village has a school, a reading hut, a first-aid post, and in many villages there is a village club or cultural center, a hospital, one or more shops, and in some there are public baths. The outbuildings of the collective farm are mostly located on the outskirts;

these are premises for livestock, grain storage, silos, grain dryers, etc. In many villages, water pumps have been built, supplying water from wells and other reservoirs, water dispensers have been installed, and in large villages there are water towers. All this significantly changed the appearance of the settlements. In a number of villages there are bakeries, canteens, sewing workshops, shoe repair is organized, hairdressing salons, photography and other public service enterprises are open. In large settlements, sidewalks began to be built, and flower beds were installed near public buildings. Chuvash villages are distinguished by an abundance of greenery.

In recent years, many state farms and enlarged collective farms have begun rebuilding villages according to a master plan. New construction is associated with the redevelopment of old settlements or their expansion. IN regional centers, where a large population not directly associated with agriculture (employees, workers) build urban-type apartment buildings, often two-story.

According to the 1959 census, 26% of the population of the Chuvash Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (267,749 people) lives in cities and urban-type settlements. There are currently seven cities, of which Cheboksary, Alatyr, Tsivilsk and Yadrin were founded in the 16th century, and Kanash and Shumerlya became cities already in Soviet time in connection with the development of industry. Now there are six urban-type settlements in Chuvashia: Kozlovka, Kirya, Vurnary, Ibresi, Buinsk, Urmary. During Soviet times, the city of Cheboksary, the capital of the republic, especially grew. Before and various utility companies.

A satellite city is being built not far from Cheboksary. Large construction is also underway in Kanash, Shumerla and Alatyr, although there are still many rural-type buildings in them. The remaining cities and workers' settlements consist mainly of small one- and two-story houses and outwardly resemble large villages.
Among the residents of the new cities there are many Chuvash, mostly recent peasants who have now become workers. Plays in the speakers -

The mood now is
Headache :(
Chuvash villages (“yal”, Turkic “aul”) were, as a rule, located near the water, in ravines. Villages of residents of the northern and central regions of the Chuvash Territory were nested around one, larger settlement. In the southeast, in the steppe regions and outside Chuvashia, they were located in a linear order along the rivers. Chuvash villages in the past did not have a clear street layout. Courtyards were located in groups around the courtyard of the ancestor (patronymy).

ric15.jpg (9478 bytes)In the 50s-80s. XIX century According to government orders, redevelopment of Chuvash settlements is being carried out. Instead of clustered estates with crooked streets, alleys and driveways radiating from groups of courtyards, straight streets with two-way or one-way blocks appeared.
Traditionally, the villages of the upper Chuvash (i.e., in the northern regions of Chuvashia) were relatively small in number (30-70 households) compared to the villages of the middle and especially lower Chuvash (up to 1000 households) in the south of the region and beyond.
Chuvash estate (plan of a Chuvash estate) The Chuvash estate was divided into kilkarti, kartish - the front yard (i.e. the yard itself) and the back - ankarti. TO
residential building
(surt, purt) a cage was being built.
The outbuildings of the middle peasant consisted of a barn, a stable, a barn (vite), a shed and a cellar. Almost every Chuvash yard had a summer kitchen. The bathhouse (muncha) was built at some distance from the estate, on the slope of a ravine, near the river.
In the courtyard, under the lupasay canopy, a set of vehicles was stored: a cart (urapa), a drog (varam urapa), a sheaf-cart (pocket) and a sleigh (suna).
Wealthy peasants had holiday carriages - a tarantass with a wicker body, a sleigh with a backrest, wedding carts (keme) with a semi-closed body covered in leather.
A common type of hut is a four-walled hut. In the 19th century Prosperous Chuvash began to have five-wall buildings, houses on stone foundations. In a number of areas of the Middle Volga region and especially the Urals, the Chuvash built houses from adobe, turf layers, and also from stone. The roofs were mostly gable; among the rich, there were hip roofs. The roof was made of bark, straw, shingles, and by the end of the 19th century. plank, iron and tiled roofs appear.
Exterior decoration and decoration of houses was almost never used in the distant past. Only wealthy peasants had the friezes of their houses decorated with carvings. Carvings (usually a solar circle) were also applied to the gate posts.
The interior of the Chuvash house was simple. Initially there was no canopy; there was only a closet. From the beginning of the 19th century. The Chuvash have chopped canopies. Inside the hut there were wide bunks along the walls, and bunks above the door, near the stove. The windows were covered with a specially treated bubble. Interior of a house with a stove The adobe stove had a recessed hearth and was heated black, the smoke was released through a fiberglass window in the corner. From the middle of the 19th century. The Chuvash are starting to install Russian stoves with a chimney. However, in them, the traditional hearth - “vuchakh” - with a suspended cauldron for the upper Chuvash and a sunken cauldron for the lower Chuvash (like the Tatars) - is preserved.
The Chuvash las is a quadrangular log house with an earthen floor, without a ceiling or windows, made of stones. In the summer they cooked and ate food and brewed beer there.
In the second half of the 19th century. wealthy Chuvash peasants began to build more spacious and comfortable houses. Instead of chicken huts, white huts and stone houses with glazed windows and warm entryways appear. In the houses there are objects of Russian peasant and sometimes urban furnishings. Luchina and tallow candles are gradually being replaced by kerosene lamps.

Richness of the table and household utensils

The Chuvash table was varied, but not rich. A significant part of the peasants considered the consumption of meat and animal fats as a sign of a state close to luxury. The basis of nutrition was bread made from rye flour - hura sakar.
There was no alternation of dishes in the daily diet of the Chuvash. The first courses consisted of soup with dumplings (salma-yashki, samakh yashky), soup with cereals, cabbage soup, turnip borscht, from the beginning of the 19th century. - potato soup. In the spring, green cabbage soup was cooked from cabbage soup, nettles, and hogweed (pultaran yashki).
As second courses, they used porridge (pata) made from spelled, barley, oat and occasionally wheat groats, oatmeal, jelly (nimer) made from oat, pea and rye flour. Since the 19th century Potatoes occupy a prominent place in the Chuvash diet. The dishes were washed down with buttermilk (uyran), sour milk (turakh), and also an emulsion of hemp seeds. The Bashkir and Orenburg Chuvash also made kumys.
For the holiday table, the Chuvash prepared hapartu - fluffy wheat bread, khuplu - a large round pie with a complex meat and cereal filling, puremech - large cheesecakes with various fillings, yava - baked balls of wheat flour without filling, huran kukli - small pies like dumplings (their cooked in a cauldron).
Remnants of the cattle-breeding traditions of the Chuvash ancestors are expressed in the persistent cultivation of the tradition of preparing meat soup ash (kakai) shurpi, boiled sausage Tultarmash, a special kind of sausage Sharttan (Old Iran. Shirdan) and curd cheese Chakat during the slaughter of livestock.
In the past, the Chuvash celebrated all holidays and rituals only with sara beer (Old Iran, more broadly). At the same time, beer was also an everyday drink. It was made from barley malt and hops. Wealthy Chuvash drank sim pylar (aged honey drink) and karchama (honey mash).

Collection of ancient national Chuvash dishes

home stuff

Among the Chuvash, almost all household utensils were made of wood. According to the manufacturing technique, it differs into:

1) hollowed-out utensils with a whole bottom (mortars, salt shakers, bowls and bowls for soup and butter, large and small ladles, altars for beer, troughs for takana flour, etc.);
2) dugout vessels with an inserted bottom (supse tubs, chiryas, lyangos (lenkes), batmans);
3) riveted products (buckets, barrels, tubs);
4) dishes made of birch bark (tuesa and purak body), bast and bark (boxes, hoops for cheese, etc.);
5) wicker utensils made of bast (purse, pester peshter, cups for bread) and wicker (baskets, etc.).
Chuvash potters appeared in the second half of the 18th century. They made pots (chulmek), jugs (kakshtam) for milk and beer, bowls and braziers.
Every Chuvash house had cast iron boilers of various sizes.
Until the beginning of the 20th century. Leather bags for grain - petre, and a takmak saddle bag - were in use.

Materials taken from the book:
"Chuvash. Ethnic history and traditional culture." Authors and compilers: V. P. Ivanov, V. V. Nikolaev, V. D. Dmitriev. Moscow, 2000.

According to one hypothesis, the Chuvash are descendants of the Bulgarians. Also, the Chuvash themselves believe that their distant ancestors were the Bulgars and Suvars, who once inhabited Bulgaria.

Another hypothesis says that this nation belongs to the associations of Savirs, who in ancient times migrated to the northern lands due to the fact that they abandoned generally accepted Islam. During the time of the Kazan Khanate, the ancestors of the Chuvash were part of it, but were a fairly independent people.

Culture and life of the Chuvash people

Basic economic activity The Chuvash practiced settled agriculture. Historians note that these people succeeded in land management much more than the Russians and Tatars. This is explained by the fact that the Chuvash lived in small villages with no cities nearby. Therefore, working with the land was the only source of food. In such villages there was simply no opportunity to shirk work, especially since the lands were fertile. But even they could not saturate all the villages and save people from hunger. The main crops grown were: rye, spelt, oats, barley, wheat, buckwheat and peas. Flax and hemp were also grown here. To work with agriculture, the Chuvash used plows, roe deer, sickles, flails and other devices.

In ancient times, the Chuvash lived in small villages and settlements. Most often they were erected in river valleys, next to lakes. Houses in villages were lined up in a row or in a heap. The traditional hut was the construction of a purt, which was placed in the center of the yard. There were also huts called la. In Chuvash settlements they played the role of a summer kitchen.

The national costume was clothing typical of many Volga peoples. Women wore tunic-like shirts, which were decorated with embroidery and various pendants. Both women and men wore a shupar, a caftan-like cape, over their shirts. Women covered their heads with scarves, and girls wore a helmet-shaped headdress - tukhya. The outerwear was a canvas caftan - shupar. In the autumn, the Chuvash dressed in a warmer sakhman - an underwear made of cloth. And in winter, everyone wore fitted sheepskin coats - kyoryoks.

Traditions and customs of the Chuvash people

The Chuvash people take care of the customs and traditions of their ancestors. Both in ancient times and today, the peoples of Chuvashia conduct ancient holidays and rituals.

One of these holidays is Ulakh. In the evening, young people gather for an evening meeting, which is organized by the girls when their parents are not at home. The hostess and her friends sat in a circle and did needlework, and at this time the guys sat between them and watched what was happening. They sang songs to the music of an accordion player, danced and had fun. Initially, the purpose of such meetings was to find a bride.

Another national custom is Savarni, the festival of farewell to winter. This holiday is accompanied by fun, songs, and dances. People dress up the scarecrow as a symbol of the passing winter. Also in Chuvashia, on this day it is customary to dress up horses, harness them to festive sleighs and give children rides.

Mancun holiday is Chuvash Easter. This holiday is the purest and brightest holiday for the people. Before Mancun, women clean their huts, and men clean up the yard and outside the yard. They prepare for the holiday, fill full barrels of beer, bake pies, paint eggs and cook National dishes. Mancun lasts seven days, which are accompanied by fun, games, songs and dances. Before Chuvash Easter, swings were installed on every street, on which not only children, but also adults rode.

(Painting by Yu.A. Zaitsev "Akatuy" 1934-35.)

Holidays related to agriculture include: Akatui, Sinse, Simek, Pitrav and Pukrav. They are associated with the beginning and end of the sowing season, with the harvest and the arrival of winter.

The traditional Chuvash holiday is Surkhuri. On this day, the girls told fortunes - they caught sheep in the dark to tie a rope around their necks. And in the morning they came to look at the color of this sheep; if it was white, then the betrothed or betrothed would have blond hair and vice versa. And if the sheep is motley, then the couple will not be particularly beautiful. In different regions, Surkhuri is celebrated on different days - somewhere before Christmas, somewhere on New Year, and some celebrate it on the night of Epiphany.

TRADITIONS OF HOUSE BUILDING AMONG THE CHUVASH V.V. MEDVEDEV The nested form of the settlement provided the opportunity to occupy the most suitable site for construction. The Chuvash took into account the distance to another house, the presence of a natural reservoir, wells, and soil quality. The most significant criterion was the behavior of domestic animals. The resting place chosen by the cow was considered the most suitable. The Chuvash believed that a hut built here would be warm. On the contrary, the places where geese landed were considered unsuitable11. According to legends, the Udmurts, when choosing a place to build a kuala, observed the behavior of a bull. They followed the bull: where he stopped, they founded a new village12. For practical reasons, the Chuvash followed the sun, choosing the well-lit side. In the spring, we observed the decline of the water and the first streams at the proposed site for the construction of the house. The rapid melting of snow, the dry ground was considered good sign . The choice of site was determined by lot. The settlers in the new territory, under the leadership of old people, gathered together to draw lots. The old men chose a long pole or staff and brought out future householders in pairs, who moved their palms along the length of the pole from top to ground. The first one to touch the ground chose the plot. A detailed study of the site for a future home is also characteristic of the East Slavic tradition, according to which, from everything that was actually suitable, it was necessary to select only that which could be considered such from a ritual-mythological point of view. In this case, a balance was established between the sacred and the profane, the cosmic and the earthly13. Entrusting the choice of a home to cattle is typical for the Eastern Slavs. Animals act as objects whose behavior is associated with a point in the space being mastered14. Opposite to successful loci were unsuitable areas of land, which included the territory of burnt houses, abandoned bathhouses, intersections and old roads. The boundaries and dimensions of the new dwelling should not coincide with the previous house15. The Chuvash tried to remove the burned houses outside the settlement. The construction of a new dwelling, if there was no possibility of moving to another site, began away from the fire that occurred. It was considered undesirable to build a house on the site of an active or abandoned road. Vyatka residents avoided construction on the forest road that ran through the village16. The prohibitions were associated with the presence on roads, intersections and other dysfunctional loci of otherworldly forces that had the ability to cause harm. For example, the road was often used by sorcerers and healers; it connected the world of living people and dead ancestors. An incorrectly chosen location for the construction of a home was the cause of failure and family discord17. The Chuvash believed that a person, having spent the night on the site planned for a house, would determine its properties. A sound, good sleep was considered a good sign. They also raised a hut on the site of an old ant heap, as it was drier and more convenient18. The Komi-Zyryans also resorted to the help of ants. Ants and a small amount of rubbish from the anthill were brought from the forest in a birch bark box. The box was placed on the site of the future building. If the place is good, then the ants will settle on it, otherwise they left the box19. An example of a change in tradition with the street-block arrangement of houses in a settlement is the plot given by P.P. Fokin about the allocation of settlements from the village. Russian Vasilyevka, Samara region. Old-timers talked about watching animals in a half-joking tone. “We should have brought them in and waited for them to settle down and calm down. But we, the settlers, had to maintain a row along the street line, maintain the boundaries of the plots, and the distance between the houses. So, if we wanted, we would not be able to follow these signs,” writes the author20. The refusal to build on a site favored by geese also confirms another requirement: from the start of construction until moving into the hut, bare-legged birds were not allowed into it, since they attracted poverty to the new home21. Having decided on the location of the future hut, they laid the foundation. The action was accompanied by the ritual nikĕs pătti “porridge to the deity of the foundation.” The silver coin and wool were placed in the tur kĕtessi “corner of the deity Tură” (south-eastern side), either on the foundation pillar, or after the first, third crown. In the center of the base of the new hut, they cooked porridge and read a prayer for the well-being of the family22. Silver was supposed to fill the house with wealth, wool - with warmth23. The Chuvash of the Bolsheshatma parish of the Yadrinsky district of the Kazan province, laying the foundation, laid out copper crosses in the corners, protecting them from evil spirits. When saying a prayer, they turned to face the east24. The Chuvash dedicated a silver coin to the deity Khertsurt, “the guardian of the hearth”25. With the adoption of Orthodoxy, the Chuvash began to borrow Russian traditions. When starting construction, coins and crosses were placed together in the corners. A priest was invited to consecrate a future or already completed house26. The coins placed at the corners of the first crowns of the dwelling were called port nikĕsĕ 27. Before the construction of the log house began, the Chuvash began to dig the underground. A crown was assembled around it, inside which nikĕs pătti porridge was cooked. Neighbors and the old man who led the ceremony were invited to the porridge. Turning to the east, they said the words of prayer. The old man threw a spoonful of porridge into the fire, after which they began to eat and treat themselves to beer. According to the remark of V.K. Magnitsky, in addition to coins, a handful of rye was placed in the corners28. If the coin represented wealth, wool - the warmth of the future building, then rye, naturally, meant a satisfying life and prosperity in the house. During field trips, informants also recalled that a dug-out young rowan bush along with its roots was lowered into the underground. The action is explained by the fact that the family, like a bush with roots, must firmly establish itself in a new place. Rowan protected the household and home. In a conversation with ethnographers E.A. Yagafova and I.G. Petrov suggested that the rowan bush in this situation acted as one of the forms of the household deity Yĕrĕkh. It is no coincidence that the tree was used as a talisman and kept in the house, on the estate, or planted in the yard. For example, when installing new gates, rowan branches are thrown into the empty metal pillars. They are also placed in the foundation along with coins and wool. Since folk culture is characterized by variability, different settlements know different things used when laying a house, and different angles suitable for this. The variety of names is also characteristic. So, in the village Bishkain, Aurgazinsky district of the Republic of Belarus, ritual actions are denoted in one word - nikĕs “foundation, basis”29. Variation is also found in the choice of the person pawning the items. This role is played by the future owner, the eldest man in the family, the eldest woman or a pregnant woman. If there was no pregnant woman among the relatives during construction, she was invited from among neighbors and close friends. If there was no man in the family, the eldest woman would throw a jacket over herself and, holding a man’s hat or mitten under her left armpit, say a prayer and words of good wishes for the building under construction and the residents. Pawning coins, wool or cereals is still practiced today. In a log house they are placed under the crowns, in a brick construction - under the first row following the foundation. According to legends, in addition to coins and wool, the Chuvash sacrificed a dog or a wolf, which was laid under the foundation30. When establishing new settlements, they also buried the corpse of a dog or wild wolf in the ground31. Sacrifice of objects for the benefit of a new home and holding prayers are found in the culture of the Bashkirs. At the site chosen for construction, a white stone was laid - the “foundation stone”, and coins were placed in the corners. They made a sacrifice and arranged a general treat for all those present and those who met on the street. Having laid the foundation, they invited a person who said a prayer and wished for prosperity and happiness32. We observe similar actions among the Mordovians. Before the construction of the foundation, a prayer was held in honor of the earth goddess. Under the front corner of the future house they buried bread, a chicken head, left a coin, scattered grain, or sprinkled the blood of a sacrificed chicken on the logs. The procedures brought wealth and prosperity33. Having finished work with the foundation of the dwelling, they began to build the walls. The log houses were raised by laying the crowns one by one according to the way they were cut, in accordance with the numbering. The Chuvash denoted walls with the word pĕrene, which also means log. Such a coincidence confirms the development, first of all, of log house construction in relation to other types of dwellings in pole, frame-post and adobe technology. On the erected log house, a maccha kashti “matitsa” was erected in one or two final rows. Small huts had one frame, while larger log houses had two. A strong log or beam was used under the mat. It was placed perpendicular to the front door34. In laying matitsa along the log house, they noticed the difference between Chuvash huts and Russian dwellings35. One matrix was laid from high-quality coniferous wood, and two from deciduous trees, for example, aspen36. The number depended on the size and design of the house. Undoubtedly, the installation of the matrix symbolized the end of work on the log house, since the walls were erected, and, at the same time, the beginning new stage work on the roof of the house. The uniqueness of the matitsa in the space of the hut, in relation to other building elements, is revealed by folklore materials: Entry shalta, puçĕ tulta “Andrey is in the hut, head out” (matitsa) Retyuk retĕm, Senchuk pĕchchen “There is a whole row of Redyukov, and Senchuk is alone” (matitsa and ceiling boards) Per saltak çine pin saltak puç hurat “A thousand soldiers lay their heads on one soldier” (matitsa and ceiling boards)37. Matitsa demarcated the territory of a residential building. It was the boundary between the “internal”, “front” part and the “external”, “rear” part, associated with the entrance/exit. An outsider, having visited a house, should not cross the border and go behind the mother without the invitation of the owners38. Among the Chuvash, matchmakers who came to the bride’s house were located on a bench near the door or under the ceiling mat. Only after talking with the owners and receiving an invitation to the table, they crossed the border and moved to another part of the house, located behind the mat39. When treating a patient, the healer sat him under the mat, listing the variants of the disease40. A.K.’s idea is fair. Bayburin that the place under the matitsa and its center must be considered the middle of the house, the topographic center, where a significant number of rituals were performed that were not associated with sitting at the table or with the stove41. Raising the matitsa was always accompanied by ritual actions. The log intended for the mother was wrapped in a fur coat and raised in this form. This technique was used to express the wish that the house would remain warm. “When lifting the mat, no matter how hard it is, not one of the workers should groan or scream. When they put the motherboard in place, they do not knock on it with an ax or any other object... If these requirements are not followed, then, according to the builders, the hut will be smelly, carbon monoxide, damp and smoky,” we read in N.V.’s notes. . Nikolsky42. Ukrainian carpenters also tried not to knock on the motherboard, since in this case the owners would have a constant headache43. There are different methods for lifting the matrix. In addition to covering with a fur coat, they hung a jug of beer, bread or a khuplu pie, and placed a spoonful of porridge at the ends of the matitsa. Having lifted the mat, the cord was cut. They picked up the loaf or watched the fall and the side on which the bread fell. The fate of the household depended on this44. The Russians wrapped bread, sometimes vodka and salt, in a tablecloth or fur and hung it from the matitsa. One of the builders scattered grain and hops near the house. At the top, the rope holding the tablecloth was cut. Like the Chuvash, in some settlements they picked up the package, and in other villages they watched the manner of its fall. The situation on earth predicted the future45. Informants confidently associate the installation of the matrix with the completion of one of the construction stages. Before lifting, two, four or six craftsmen involved in working with the matrix were seated on the log house. When there were not enough men, adult women rose to the top. Before getting up, they announced in a playful manner: “The uterus asks for vodka!” Bread or a khupla and a bottle of moonshine, vodka, and home-made beer were tied to the matitsa with a rope. They lifted it very carefully, showing mutual respect and maintaining silence. The carpenters sitting on the log house drank a glass and lowered the bottle down. In addition to the bottle, a treat was tied to the mat, which, after trying, was also lowered down. Among the riding Chuvashs. Antonovka, Gafuriysky district of the Republic of Belarus, under the laid matica in the center of the house, the owners set the table for the builders46. In the village Naumkino, Aurgazinsky district of the Republic of Belarus, for insufficient food, the craftsmen hid an empty bottle from the mother on the roof of the house with the neck towards the windy side so that it would buzz during strong gusts47. The rope with the hanging bread was cut off. A loaf falling flat side down was a good sign; a rounded side of the bread foreshadowed misfortune. In addition to pie, bread, bottles and snacks, the installation of the mother mat is associated with the placement of coins and wool, i.e. repeated the same steps as when laying the foundation. The coin and wool symbolized the prosperity and warmth of the future building. In the village Bishkain, Aurgazinsky district of the Republic of Belarus, flour, millet and other cereals were rolled into a ball of wool. Ukrainians of the Republic of Bashkortostan wrapped a matitsa in a scarf and placed grain and coins under it, which guaranteed a happy life. Under the influence of the Bashkirs, the Ukrainians replaced money with wool, “a symbol of happiness and prosperity among pastoral peoples”48. The use of coins and wool confirms the role of matitsa as the locus of concentration of the family’s material well-being49. Ritual actions under the matitsa at home during wedding celebrations, seeing off recruits and other situations confirm “the decisiveness of the events taking place in the life of an individual, family and clan... the fateful task is being solved: to be behind the matitsa or to stay on this side”50. Thus, the Chuvash, like many other peoples, accompanied the construction of a new house with ritual actions. The location for the future home was chosen in accordance with religious beliefs, but paying attention to the features of the landscape. TO significant events belongs to the correct laying of the foundation, ensuring a comfortable and happy life in a new place. Symbols of prosperity were coins, wool, and rowan branches. The construction of the log house ended with the installation of the mat, which personified the middle of the space of the hut, its center. Naturally, home rituals are diverse, containing a large number various kinds procedures. However, the choice of the location of the house, the beginning of construction and the completion of one of the stages are important events in the Chuvash house-building tradition.

Chuvash clothing

Traditional clothing had a variety of shapes and variations. The materials for Chuvash clothing were canvas, homespun cloth, purchased fabrics, felt, and leather. Linden bast, bast, and wood were also used for shoes. The material for clothing was made mainly in household. Canvas was woven from hemp and flax. Festive clothes were made from thin canvas (çinçe pir), and work shirts and trousers were made from medium-quality canvas (vatam pir). Thin cloth made of sheep wool (tala) was used for festive and wedding kaftans (sǎkhman), coarse cloth was used for ordinary kaftans and chapans.] The ensemble of women's clothing includes: kӗpe (shirt) with breasts. medallions kaskӗ, shupӑr (type of robe), chӗr ҫitti (apron), piҫikhhi (belt), scarves, atӑ (boots), tӑla (onuchi, white for the lower and middle lower classes, black for the upper ones), headdress for girls tukhya with a closed, cone-shaped or khushpu with an open top for married women, surpan and surpan tutri (women's towel-shaped headbands), turban (bandage over the surpan), masmak (headband). Chuvash jewelry with coins, beads and beadwork include tevet (shoulder belt), sӑrka (pendant), alka (earrings), shӑrҫa, mӑya (neck outfits), ama, shÿlkeme, surpan çakki (breast decorations), ҫӗрӗ (ring) , sulӑ (bracelet), yarkӑch (gaiters), sara (waist outfit), yӗs kҫre (tailpiece), ҫӳҫ tuni tenki (braid), enchӗk (purse for mirror and coins), tӗkӗr (waist mirror), etc. Men wore kӗpe (shirt), yӗm (pants), boots, felt boots, bast shoes, hat, and the groom - ҫulӗk, kӗrÿ tutri (embroidered head scarf with fringe), held a salamat (whip) in his hand. Boys were dressed identically to adults, but without ritual accessories.

Girl in ancient national clothes

Ancient national outfit

Men's national costume

National dishes.

The Chuvash had and still have national dishes that have survived to this day. Chuvash cuisine was influenced by Russian, Tatar, Udmurt, Mari, but despite this it retained its national features. Vegetables are one of the main products in Chuvash cuisine. The Chuvash have long been engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry, so in the kitchen large share grain products and meat. But meat was a seasonal product during the slaughter of livestock. Only from the end of the 19th century did potatoes appear. Soups are varied: meat or fish broth with seasonings (yashka), rich meat soup (shurpe), green cabbage soup, Chuvash-style okroshka, milk soup, turӑkh yashki (cold soup).

Antique millstones

Not a single Chuvash meal is complete without bread. In pagan times, bread was considered sacred and could only be cut by the head or elder members of the family. Children were taught to pick up bread crumbs that fell during meals. The Chuvash have long baked pies with cereals, berries (kukol), vegetables, cottage cheese (puremech), meat or fish (khuplu). The latter was prepared mainly in holidays. With the advent of potatoes in the kitchen, flatbreads and cheesecakes began to be made from them. The Chuvash baked pancakes and pancakes, to which they added vegetables. The Chuvash mainly ate lamb, pork, and beef. The lower Chuvash people ate horse meat. Meat dishes were mainly prepared for the holidays. It could be a sausage made from a sheep's stomach stuffed with meat and lard (shartan) or, for example, a boiled sausage with a cereal filling prepared with the addition of minced meat or fish and blood (tultarmosh). The game they ate was mainly hare. The Chuvash, who lived on the banks of rivers and lived in fishing, ate a lot of fish.

Mostly cow's milk was used. It was drunk in its “pure” form (set), as well as sour (turӑkh). They made cottage cheese and curd cheese (chӑkӑt) from it. Kumys was also common among the lower Chuvash people. Prepared butter. However, they themselves ate little of it - they sold more. Potatoes were often added to cottage cheese products.

Honey was the main sweetness. Korchama and mursala (mead) were made from it. It is believed that the Chuvash developed beer in the second half of the 19th century. Chuvash beer was brewed from barley or rye malt. Tea and kvass were also common. Various herbs were prepared for tea: oregano, St. John's wort, fireweed and others.

Paganism.

In the sacred grove

As we already know, the Chuvash were originally pagans. In Chuvash paganism, the upper god Sulti Tură and his family were surrounded by good deities subordinate to him, such as Kepe, who was in charge of the destinies of people, Pulehse, who directly assigned people’s fate, Pihampar, who gives people their spiritual qualities, who is also the patron of livestock, Piresti, who protects people from misfortunes. In the pantheon of evil gods and spirits, after the devil Shuittan, a prominent place was occupied by the formidable field god Kiremet. Kiremet karti is a place for public sacrifices and prayers. Like many terms of the ancient Chuvash religious and mythological sphere, the word "kiremet" has several meanings. This is both a deity, the brother of the highest god Tură, and the head of evil forces, and a place of sacrifice.

Initially, Kiremet was considered the twin brother of the supreme god salti Tur. The ideas about Tură and Kiremet reflected ancient views about the dual principle of the creator of the Universe: the good principle was personified in the image of Tură, and the evil one in the image of Kiremet. Both twins participated in the act of creating the Universe. Initially, Kiremet actively helped Tură in his affairs, but often suffered failures, for which God predetermined him a secondary, subordinate position.

Initially, Tură and Kiremet lived in the upper world, and Kiremet served as an intermediary between God and people. On behalf of Tură, he rode around the earth on three beautiful horses and carried out justice against violators of the established order. Over time, such a subordinate position ceased to suit him, and Kiremet leaves the subordination of Tură and begins to seduce people. For disobedience, Tură expels him from the upper world to earth. On earth, Kiremet began to oppress the Chuvash, took away their wives and girls, and sent illnesses and misfortunes to those who resisted. The Chuvash complained to God, and Tură decided to banish Kiremet to the underworld. But one woman stood up for him, and Tură allowed Kiremet to live in ravines and forests. Kiremet gave birth to many children, and they also settled in ravines and forests... The number of Kiremetey among the Chuvash reached 11-12. Collective prayers with sacrifices were held in their honor. The place of worship of Kiremet was surrounded by a fence and was considered especially revered. And in our village there were two of these sacred places. One is on the right bank, at the highest place. And on the left bank, next to the cemetery (C ă rtra). There were sacred groves and places for sacrifices.

The Chuvash considered it an evil spirit Yerekh, living next to a person. It was a woman or a man, a tin figurine or a doll. They were stored in almost every home in special boxes or baskets. The timing of religious ceremonies was determined by healers (yumas, machavar).

Rituals

Pagan sacrifices and prayers among the Chuvash indicate that they had polytheism.

In the spring, before cultivating the land, they make a sacrifice asking God for a rich harvest. Before releasing the cattle to pasture, during the ripening of the grain, they again ask only for His blessing on the livestock and on the grain. And in the fall, when they go home from the field and thresh the first bread, when the snow crowds the cattle into the pen, they again offer thanksgiving sacrifices to God Tură for the bountiful harvest and good offspring of livestock. In these prayers there is never a word mentioned about any other God, only his only one is mentioned and thanks are given for the benefit received. True, in addition to the sacrifices offered to this only God, there are also other small sacrifices in which they pray to the brownie khĕrt-hurt or kiremets. These are small sacrifices thanks to which one tries to live in good relations with evil spirits, otherwise they would harm them, torment them with illnesses and suffering.

Sacrifices are characterized by the fact that white animals are usually sacrificed to God. On the occasion of field sacrifices, a white mare, another time, during blood sacrifices, a white ram. However, they consider white to be God’s favorite color, as stated even in folk song:

Khurăntash hura yuratat,

Kilĕntesh kine yuratat,

Pirĕn chăvash yălipe

Tură shurra yuratat.

Relatives love the goose

Relatives love daughter-in-law

According to our Chuvash custom,

God loves white (gifts).

On the occasion of sacrifices and holidays, they wear white clothes. The rituals of the Chuvash pagan faith are manifested in sacrifices. The sacrifice is called chÿk, during which meat or some food is sacrificed to God Tură or other spirits. A propitiatory and grateful sacrifice can only be offered to God, because He extends His blessings to grain and livestock, from Him both rain and fertility, all this can only be asked from Him, and therefore gratitude can only concern Him. The sacrifices made to other spirits - Kiremets, khĕrt-surts - are only of an expiatory nature. They give the spirit something to be on good terms with him, so that he does not get angry, otherwise he will send illnesses to them.

The Chuvash, as a people closely connected with nature, when offering their victims, were guided not by the movement and changes of celestial bodies, but took as a basis their main occupation, which distinguishes them from all Turkic peoples- agriculture.

The sequence of sacrifices among the Chuvash cannot be determined by the calendar, but only by individual dates for cultivating the land. Just as the work of a farmer consists of spring plowing, sowing and autumn harvest, Chuvash sacrifices are also divided into spring and autumn sacrifices. In the spring, favorable weather conditions are needed for plowing, sowing and good grain growth, as well as for its ripening. Therefore, all spring sacrifices, without exception, are propitiatory sacrifices. In the autumn, when the harvested grain was removed, all the fruits of the earth were removed, the cattle grazing in the rich meadows grew up and, having multiplied, remained at home in a paddock, a stable, and the beehives of bees were filled with golden, sweet honey, in a word, the gifts of God were collected in one heap, autumn thanksgiving sacrifices to God follow, separately for grain, livestock and bees.

Most of the sacrifices are usually annual sacrifices that must be made every year. In addition to them, there are victims committed less frequently after two, three, five years. From case to case: during the construction of a house, at a hotel, in the event of the evil eye or the occurrence of other diseases, they also make a propitiatory, a grateful, or even an atoning sacrifice.

In our village we also had such sacred places of sacrifice, where our ancestors prayed and brought their offerings to God and the deities. One location is a spot on high ground where the village cemetery now stands. A sacred tree grew here, which was surrounded by a fence. Poles were also driven into the ground, on which the skins and heads of sacrificial animals were hung. Collective prayers and sacrifices took place here, both to God and to the spirits of ancestors, to grant good luck, luck, prosperity in the home, a good harvest and offspring of livestock. Then the meat of the sacrificial animals was boiled in cauldrons and eaten along with porridge. Old-timers say that under the mountain there was a spring (ҫăл) with miraculous water. By washing with this water, people were healed, wounds healed, got rid of illnesses and gained strength. During times of wars, revolutions and other upheavals, the spring dried up. But there is hope for the revival of the traditions and ancient culture of our ancestors. Who knows, maybe then the miraculous spring will flow again...

Another place was located on another hill, on the opposite side. Sacrifice rituals also took place there, and the Uyav holiday was often held with games for the young. There the guys looked for brides for themselves, and the girls tried to please them. They especially showed respect to brides from other villages. And this was also understandable. It was necessary to freshen the blood, because in the village there was often consanguinity among the inhabitants.

Holidays.

Our ancestors had quite a few holidays that were associated with the agricultural and lunar calendar.

Surkhuri.

The ritual calendar opened with the holiday of Surkhuri. This is an ancient Chuvash holiday. In a more ancient version, it had a connection with the worship of tribal spirits - the patrons of livestock. Hence the name of the holiday (from “surăkh yrri” - “sheep spirit”). During the celebration, rituals were held to ensure economic success and personal well-being of people, a good harvest and offspring of livestock in the new year.

Kăsharni, (in some places Kĕreschenkke) is a holiday of the New Year cycle. It was celebrated by Chuvash youth during the week from Christmas (Rashtav) to baptism. After the introduction of Christianity, it coincided with Russian Christmastide and baptism. Initially, this holiday celebrated the winter solstice. The youth spent this evening having fun. There was music and singing all night, boys and girls danced to ditties. Important place In the celebration of kăsharni, all kinds of fortune telling about fate were involved.

Çăvarni (Maslenitsa).

The winter cycle ended with the holiday Çăvarni (Maslenitsa), which marked the onset of spring forces in nature. In the design of the holiday, in the content of songs, sentences and rituals, its agrarian nature and the cult of the sun were clearly manifested.

Kalăm- one of traditional holidays spring ritual cycle dedicated to the annual commemoration of deceased ancestors. Unbaptized Chuvash kalam celebrated before the great day (mănkun). Among the baptized Chuvash, the traditional mănkun coincided with Christian Easter. In many places, kalam merged with mankun, and the word itself was preserved only as the name of the first day of Easter.

Sĕren- a spring holiday of the lower Chuvash people, dedicated to the expulsion of evil spirits from the village. And the very name of the holiday means “exile.” Sĕren was held on the eve of the great day (mănkun), and in some places also before the summer commemoration of deceased ancestors - on the eve of ŧimĕk.

Măncun- a holiday celebrating the spring new year according to the ancient Chuvash calendar. The name mănkun translates as “great day”. It is noteworthy that the pagan East Slavic tribes also called the first day of the spring new year Great Day. After the spread of Christianity, the Chuvash mankun coincided with Christian Easter.

According to the ancient Chuvash calendar, mănkun was celebrated on the days of the spring solstice. The pagan Chuvash began Mănkun on Wednesday and celebrated for a whole week.

Akatui.

At the end of spring field work, the Akatui holiday (marriage of the plow) was held, associated with the ancient Chuvash idea of ​​the marriage of the plow (masculine) with the earth (feminine). This holiday combines a number of ceremonies and solemn rituals. In the old Chuvash way of life, akatuy began before going out to spring field work and ended after the end of sowing spring crops. The name Akatui is now known to the Chuvash people everywhere. However, relatively recently, the upper Chuvash called this holiday suhatu (dry “plowing” + tuiĕ “holiday, wedding”), and the lower Chuvash called it sapan tuiĕ or sapan (from the Tatar saban “plow”). In the past, akatuy had an exclusively religious-magical character and was accompanied by collective prayer. Over time, with the baptism of the Chuvash, it turned into a community holiday with horse racing, wrestling, and youth entertainment.

Chimĕk - a summer holiday dedicated to the remembrance of deceased relatives with visits to cemeteries.

In different places, the word uyav has different shades of meaning, and the youth entertainment itself is conducted in different ways. During the yay, young people gathered in the evenings outside the outskirts and organized round dances with dances, dances, and games. At this time, usually young guys got to know their chosen ones better.

Near the village, in a meadow, near a grove or in a forest clearing, there was a permanent place for gatherings of young people, which were called either simply văyă - “games”, or pukhă, tapă - “gathering, meeting”. On the day of tapă or văyă, a bench for musicians was arranged in such a place. In treeless areas near the bench, several freshly cut trees were dug in and decorated with multi-colored ribbons.

Zince- a traditional pre-Christian ritual cycle timed to coincide with the summer solstice. This agricultural holiday, a period of rest and observance of the peace of Mother Earth, who at this time was considered burdened with a ripening harvest. During the Xinze period, it was strictly forbidden to disturb the land in any way: it was forbidden to plow, sow, dig the ground, remove manure, throw heavy things on the ground, cut down forests, build houses, climb trees and buildings.

Vyrma- this is the harvest, the harvest season. In the old days, grain was harvested by hand - harvested with sickles. It was an exhausting and difficult, at the same time very responsible period in the annual labor cycle of the peasant. Bread is the crown of all the farmer’s labors.

Avăn- a word with multiple meanings. These are “threshing floor, barn, threshing”, “threshing” and... “holiday”. Due to the great significance of threshing bread, this holiday was accompanied by many obligatory rituals. It was especially pleasant and solemn for the peasants. Threshing is as exciting a time as the harvest. The barn for drying sheaves, the current and threshing on it closed and tied together the annual cycle of field work. There is only one short road from grain to the barn and to the mill.

Çÿkleme- a rite of consecration of a new harvest by sacrifice to the spirits of nature, deceased ancestors, accompanied by a treat for all relatives. Chÿk is a ritual of sacrifice to the great Almighty God (çÿlti aslă Tură), his family and assistants - the guardian spirits of living and inanimate nature, human society and people. The word “chÿk” itself has many meanings. In certain cases, it means a sacrifice, and the place where such a ritual is performed, and a certain deity of the highest rank, and is also used as a ritual exclamation addressed to Tură.

Bride kidnapping.

Chuvash bride

Kidnapping occurred mainly in two cases: due to poverty, which did not allow paying the bride price and holding the appropriate wedding, and also due to the disagreement of the parents or the girl herself with the marriage. Bride theft usually occurred at night, when the girls began to leave the festivities. Several agile guys harnessed the horse to a wagon or sleigh, crept closer to the place of celebration and, luring the one they spotted to the side, took it away. Then they locked her in a cage with the groom or his relatives. There were frequent cases of disagreement between the bride's parents due to their reluctance to let a free worker leave home. All preparations for the wedding began only from the moment the girl was captured. Her parents, who learned about what had happened, could only hope for a truce and await a visit from their son-in-law. Chuvash boys often established their right to a girl by stealing the bride. Such a marriage, kidnapping, was generally not condemned.

Wedding.

Chuvash wedding