What are grains? Meal'n'Real! History and diversity of cereal crops

Cereal crops (Poaseae family) include:

• soft wheat
• durum wheat
• barley
• triticale (hybrid of rye and wheat)
• corn
• millet
• sorghum broom
• grain sorghum
• sweet sorghum

This group usually includes buckwheat from the Buckwheat family. Millet, rice and buckwheat are called cereal crops based on their main use.

The largest area of ​​cultivated land in our country is occupied by wheat; barley, oats, and rye are also cultivated on large areas. The wide distribution of cereals is explained by the fact that they serve as a source of necessary food products, such as bread and a variety of cereals. In cereal grains, the main nutrients (protein, carbohydrates and other organic compounds) are in the most favorable ratio.
Protein contains most of all wheat grain (up to 20-21%), fat - corn grain, millet and oats.

Grain grains play a huge role in the production of various feeds for livestock: concentrated (corn, barley, oats), roughage (chaff, chaff, straw), etc.

Cereals are of great value as raw materials for the production of starch, molasses, dextrin, alcohol and other products.

In Russia, through selection, a new grain feed crop was obtained - triticale (a hybrid of wheat and rye). Triticale grain is of fairly high quality and is used for feed and food purposes. The green mass of this crop is a valuable feed for livestock.
This crop is distinguished from wheat and rye by its high resistance to adverse environmental factors.

The grain has a very high nutritional value and calorie content, is well stored, and convenient for transportation and processing. These qualities of grain were known to man in ancient times, and therefore grain crops became the basis for the development of crop production. Wheat has been known since the 7th millennium BC, rice - since the 3rd millennium BC.
One of the oldest plants is corn, which the local population of America has grown since time immemorial.

Nowadays, more than half of the entire arable land on the globe, over 750 million hectares, is occupied by grain crops. They are grown on all continents. In the Russian Federation, more than 125 million hectares are sown with grain crops. The branch of Russian agriculture that is engaged in the cultivation of grain crops to produce grain is called grain farming.

Plant structure of grain crops

Despite the diversity of species, cereal grains share many common botanical characteristics.

Root system of cereals

Stem and leaves of cereal crops

The stem of a cereal is a straw, hollow or filled with a pith, divided by nodes with transverse partitions into 5 - 6 internodes. The height of the stem is from 50 to 200 cm, and more for corn and sorghum.
The stem of cereals is capable of tillering, that is, forming lateral shoots arising mainly from close underground stem nodes or the tillering node.

Breeders strive to develop cereal varieties (dwarf and semi-dwarf) with strong and short straw to prevent plant lodging.
Buckwheat's stem is usually branched, 30 to 150 cm high, and reddish in color.

The leaves of cereals are linear, while those of buckwheat are arrow-shaped.
Leaves are formed at each stem node. Each leaf consists of a leaf sheath, which tightly covers the stem and protects the young growing parts, giving them greater strength, and a leaf blade.
At the base of the leaf sheath, at the point of its attachment to the stem, a thickening is formed - a leaf node. It not only attaches the leaf to the stem, but also prevents the loaves from lodging. Growing from the lower shaded part, the leaf node puts pressure on the stem to help maintain its vertical position.

Cereal plant flower

The flower of cereal crops has two floral scales: outer (lower) and inner (upper). In spinous forms, the outer flower scale bears an awn.

Between the flower scales are the main parts of the flower: a pistil with two feathery stigmas, as well as three stamens (rice has six). The flowers of all grains (except corn) are bisexual. In most cereals, they are collected in an inflorescence, a complex spike (wheat, rye, barley, triticale) or a panicle (oats, sorghum, millet). Corn has two inflorescences - the male flowers are collected in a panicle, the female flowers - in an ear formed in the leaf axil.
Rye, corn, sorghum, buckwheat are cross-pollinating plants. Pollen is carried by the wind, and buckwheat is pollinated mainly by insects (usually bees). The remaining grain crops are self-pollinating.

Fruit of cereals

The fruit in cereal crops, usually called grain, is a caryopsis in which the seed is fused to the pericarp.
The fruit of buckwheat is a triangular nut. In agricultural production it is also called grain.
The grain of cereals consists of fruit and seed coats, endosperm and embryo, where one can easily distinguish a bud with the bud of leaves and stems and primary germinal roots. The embryo is connected to the endosperm, which contains all the nutrients necessary for germination and emergence of seedlings, by a scutellum (cotyledon). During germination, endosperm nutrients are supplied to the embryo that begins to grow through the absorptive cells of the scutellum.

The most superficial layer of the endosperm consists of cells rich in protein - this is the so-called aleurone layer. Below it are cells filled mainly with starch.
Fats are concentrated mainly in the embryo. In some crops, such as corn, the fat content in the germ can reach 40%, so they are used to obtain vegetable oil. In filmy grain crops (millet, rice) and in barley, the caryopsis is covered with flower scales, and in sorghum, in addition, with spikelet scales.

The chemical composition of grain depends on the type and variety of plant, soil and climatic conditions, and agricultural technology. For example, in a dry, hot climate, wheat grain has a high protein content (up to 18%), and in a zone with a temperate climate and with abundant rainfall, it is reduced. The protein content of grain ranges from 10 to 18% (sometimes higher).

Wheat, especially strong and durum varieties, has the most protein, while rye, buckwheat and rice have the least amount of protein. Carbohydrates in grain accumulate on average from 60 to 80%. It's mostly starch. Rice, rye, corn and buckwheat contain the most carbohydrates. Fat content varies. For example, oat grain without films contains up to 7% fat, corn - 4%, and rice without films - only 0.4%. The amount of ash substances is also different: in rice grain - 0.8%, and in millet - 2.7%.
The normal water content in mature grain ranges from 12 to 16%.

Phases of growth and development of grain crops

The growth and development of grains occurs in phases, among which the following can be distinguished:

Shoots - the first green leaves appear on the 7th - 10th day after sowing the seeds.

Tillering - after another 10 - 20 days, the first lateral shoots and secondary nodal roots appear in the plants.

Output into the handset - 12 - 18 days after tillering, the growth of the lower internodes begins and the stem grows.

Heading (panicle sweeping) - inflorescences appear at the top of the stems.

Bloom . As mentioned above, based on the nature of flowering, they distinguish between self-pollinating grain crops (wheat, rice, millet, oats, etc.) and cross-pollinating ones (rye, corn, sorghum).

Maturation - final phase. To determine the ripening or ripeness of grain, three phases are distinguished: milky, waxy and full ripeness. In the milk ripeness phase, the grain is soft, green in color and contains up to 50% water.
The grain of waxy ripeness dries out, becomes yellow, and its contents become plastic, like wax. During this period, it can be removed separately.
When fully ripe, the grain hardens and easily falls out of the flower scales. In this phase of grain ripeness, the crop is harvested only by direct harvesting.

Winter and spring grain crops

Cereals are divided into spring and winter.

Winter bread (winter wheat, winter rye and winter barley) are sown in late summer or early autumn before the onset of stable frosts. The harvest is harvested the following year. At the beginning of growth and development, they need low temperatures (from 0 to 10°).

Spring plants They undergo the initial phases of development at elevated temperatures (from 10 - 12 to 20 °), so they are sown in the spring and receive a grain harvest in the same year.
Winter grains are more productive than spring grains, since they better use autumn and winter-spring moisture reserves and nutrients. In addition, they are more resistant to weeds because they vegetate earlier in the spring.
In autumn they form a well-developed root system and leaf surface. However, winter crops suffer from unfavorable wintering conditions: severe frosts, alternating thaws and frosts, ice crust, abundance of snow and melt water.
In areas where there are severe winters with little snow and frequent autumn droughts, for example in the Volga region, the Southern Urals, Siberia, and Northern Kazakhstan, winter crops are almost not cultivated.

Cultivation of grain crops in Russia

The placement of grain crops is primarily related to their biological characteristics and soil and climatic conditions.
Winter crops are widespread in the European part of Russia, and in the northern regions with harsher winters, winter rye, the most winter-hardy crop, is mainly cultivated; in the central, western and southern regions - winter wheat and in the southernmost regions, in addition, winter barley.

The main zoned varieties of winter rye are: Vyatka 2, Omka, Saratovskaya large-grain, Kharkovskaya 55, Kharkovskaya 60, Belta, Voskhod 2, Chulpan (short-stemmed).
The main varieties of winter wheat are Bezostaya 1, Mironovskaya 808, Ilyichevka, Odesskaya 51, Polesskaya 70, Krasnodarskaya 39, Priboy, Zernogradka, Rostovchanka.

Spring wheat is the main grain crop of the steppe arid regions of the Volga region, the Urals, Siberia, and Kazakhstan.
The main varieties of spring wheat are: Kharkovskaya 46, Saratovskaya 29, Saratovskaya 42, Novosibirskaya 67, Moskovskaya 21.

Spring barley and oats are grown almost everywhere. Zoned varieties Viner, Moskovsky 121, Nutans 187, Donetsk 4, Donetsk 6, Luch, Alza, Nadya.
Main varieties of oats - Lgovsky 1026, Golden shower, Victory, Eagle, Hercules.

Corn and sorghum are heat-loving crops, and their distribution is limited to the southern regions and central zone of the country. The main varieties and hybrids of corn - Chishminskaya, Voronezhskaya 76, Bukovinsky ZTV, Dneprovsky 56TV, Dneprovsky 247MV, VIR 25, VIR 24M, VIR 156TV, Krasnodarskaya 1/49, Odesskaya 10.

Sorghum, as a salt-tolerant and drought-resistant crop, has advantages in saline soils and in conditions of lack of moisture.
Sorghum varieties are zoned Ukrainian 107, Red Amber.

Millet is characterized by an increased need for heat and drought resistance, so it is cultivated in areas with warm climates.
Varieties grown Saratovskoe 853, Veselo-Podolyanskoe 38, Mironovskoe 51.

Rice requires a lot of heat and moisture. Rice fields - checks - are completely flooded with water. In our country, rice is grown mainly in the North Caucasus, southern Ukraine, the Volga region, Central Asia, Primorsky Krai, and southern Kazakhstan.
Rice varieties are zoned Dubovsky 129, Kuban 3, Krasnodar 424, Uzros 59.

Buckwheat is a heat-loving and moisture-loving crop. This plant has a relatively short growing season, and therefore it is cultivated mainly in the temperate climate zone, and also as a repeat crop in the south under irrigation.
The main varieties of buckwheat - Bogatyr, Kazan local, Kalininskaya, Yubileinaya 2.

Features of agricultural technology of grain crops

The agricultural technology of grain crops is different, but also has much in common. When placed in crop rotation, first of all they are distinguished into winter and spring, row-crop and continuous (row) sowing, early and late. Winter crops are placed after early harvested crops, especially legumes, in clean and occupied pairs. They tolerate repeated sowings better than spring ones and suffer less from weeds.
Spring grains are best placed after row crops, winter crops, perennial grasses and legumes.
In arid areas, the main grain crop - spring wheat - is planted in pure fallow for two years in a row. Then it is recommended to sow spring barley.
Millet produces high grain yields after perennial grasses.

The best predecessors of corn are winter crops, row crops and leguminous crops.
Buckwheat works well after fertilized winter and row crops.
Rice is cultivated on rice irrigation systems in special rice crop rotations. In them, permanent crops of rice (3-4 years) are alternated with crops of alfalfa, winter crops and some other crops, as well as with occupied fallow.
The main tillage for spring grain crops usually consists of fall tillage in the fall (in an area with sufficient moisture with plows with skimmers to the depth of the arable layer, in steppe arid regions - with flat-cut tools).

Cereal crops, except rice, are grown in our country without irrigation, but in areas with developed irrigation they occupy significant areas of irrigated land. These are mainly winter wheat and corn, which, when irrigated, produce grain yields of 50 -100 c/ha or more.

To reduce moisture evaporation, in the spring in areas of sufficient moisture, the soil for spring crops is harrowed with tooth harrows, and in arid steppe regions - with needle harrows. Then, after the appearance of weeds, the fields are cultivated 1 - 3 times, depending on the sowing time of the crop and weed infestation.
In steppe arid regions, pre-sowing cultivation for spring wheat is usually carried out together with sowing. At the same time, fertilizers are applied to the fields. Combined units have been created for this purpose.

Tillage for winter crops is carried out after harvesting the predecessors. Often, especially when there is a lack of moisture in the soil, surface treatment (10 - 12 cm) with disk or flat-cut tools is advisable.
Grains are sown at optimal times, which are established by research institutions for each crop and variety in all zones of the country. The fields are sown with high-quality seeds of zoned varieties and hybrids. Seed sowing rates vary greatly by crop and variety; they are also set by research institutions for each zone.
For example, 120 - 250 kg of spring wheat are sown per hectare, and 15 - 25 kg of corn.

Continuous crops are sown with row grain or grain-fertilizer seeders, and row crops, such as corn, with precision seeders. At the same time, fertilizers are applied. In arid steppe regions, grain crops are sown using stubble seeders with simultaneous cultivation. When sowing in rows, the distance between rows of plants is 15 cm, in narrow rows - 7 - 8 cm.

Buckwheat and millet are often sown in a wide-row manner, the distance between the rows of plants is 45 - 60 cm, so that inter-row cultivation of the soil can be carried out to loosen it and destroy weeds. Millet and sorghum seeds are planted in the ground to a depth of 2 - 4 cm, corn - up to 8 -10 cm.
The lower the moisture content of the top layer of soil, the deeper the seeds are planted. To obtain high yields, organic and mineral fertilizers are applied to all grain crops.

The main application of fertilizers - mainly organic and mineral phosphorus-potassium - is best done in the fall before fall treatment. When sowing, granular phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers are applied to the rows. For fertilizing during the growing season, especially in the early phases of development, nitrogen and phosphorus. Doses are calculated based on agrochemical cartograms, depending on the plant’s nutrient needs and the planned harvest. Autumn and spring nitrogen and nitrogen-phosphorus fertilizing of winter crops is very important.

If necessary, chemical means of controlling weeds, pests and plant diseases (pesticides, herbicides) are used.
On irrigated lands, crops are irrigated during the main phases of plant development.

For cereal crops - buckwheat, millet and corn, the main care is loosening the rows at the same time as fertilizing and destroying weeds. Bees are brought to the buckwheat crops during flowering for pollination. Modern industrial technology for cultivating grain crops, based on the comprehensive mechanization of all processes, makes it possible to completely abandon the use of manual labor.
Grain crops are harvested using a separate method (mowing the mass into windrows with reapers, picking and threshing the windrows with combines) and by direct combining. The separate method allows you to begin harvesting waxy ripe grain and significantly reduce losses.
Corn cobs (for grain) are most often harvested using corn harvesters.

The numerous family of cereals is the most famous representative of the monocot class.

The varied ratio of proteins, carbohydrates, enzymes and vitamins in cereals meets the needs of the human body and is valuable for animals. Basic food products such as flour and cereals are made from grain for people, and compound feed for animals.

Cereals are characterized by a number of common characteristics that distinguish them from other monocots.

Variety of cereals

Cereal crops are represented by two large groups.

The first includes types of cereals of the same family (the so-called true breads):

1. Wheat (including spelled - the ancestor of modern durum wheat varieties).
2. Rye.
3. Oats.
4. Barley.
5. Triticale (hybrid, intermediate form of rye and wheat).

The second group consists of grain crops (millet breads) of the cereal family:

1. Corn.
2. Millet.
3. Sorghum.

The varieties of the millet genus include:

• Chumiza (capitate millet, buda, black rice) is cultivated in China, in the Far East.
• Paisa (wild millet, barnyard grass, Japanese millet) is cultivated in the Far East, Asia, Australia, and southern Africa.
• Mogar (Italian millet, Italian foxtail) is grown in the North Caucasus, Ukraine, Asia, Australia, Africa, and North America.
• Dagussa (finger millet, Eleusina coracana) grows in the arid regions of Africa, Asia, and India.

Cereal crops can be distinguished into a separate group:

1. Quinoa (other names: quinoa, rice quinoa). An ancient cereal that replaced rice and bread for the Incas. Chenopodiaceae family.
2. Amaranth. It was used instead of wheat by the Aztecs and is still popular among the mountain tribes of China, Nepal, Pakistan, and India. Amaranth family.
3. Buckwheat. The lack of gluten makes it unsuitable for baking bread; it is used for flatbreads, pancakes and pancakes. Buckwheat family.

These crops are not part of the cereal family, but are similar to them in structure and nutritional value, and have a grain-shaped fruit.

The structure of cereals and cereals

Cereal crops are characterized by common morphological characteristics.

The root system is fibrous. Under favorable conditions, it goes 1.5-2 meters into the ground. The bulk of the roots are located in the top layer of soil, 25-30 cm from the surface. Cereal roots are divided into 3 types:

• primary;
• secondary (subordinate clauses);
• supporting (aerial) - found only in corn and sorghum.

The stem is a thin straw, divided by thickened partitions (stem nodes) along its entire length. The inner part of the stem of corn and sorghum is filled with parenchyma (pulp).

The leaf is linear in shape, the leaf blades are rolled.

The inflorescences have the shape:

• Spike (with a jointed stem and spikelets): rye, wheat, triticale, barley.
• Paniculate (with a central axis and lateral branches with spikelets): oats, rice, millet, sorghum.
• Combination of panicle and cob: corn.

The flower consists of two types of scales:

lower (outer);

The flowers have different development: in the first group of grasses the lower ones are more developed, in the second group the upper ones are more developed.

Between the flowers there is an ovary (2 feathery stigmas and 3 stamens; rice has 6 stamens).

Grain structure

The fruits of cereals are grains with the following structure:

• 2 shells: fruit (outer) and seed (inner).
• Endosperm (mealy kernel), which contains protein and starch.
• An embryo containing sugars, nitrogenous substances, vitamins, fat, enzymes. Consists of 3 parts: bud, rudimentary root, scutellum - a conductor of nutrition for the embryo.

A distinctive feature of cereals of both groups is the structural features of the grain. In crops of the first group, a longitudinal groove runs along the abdominal part of the grain (wide in wheat, barley, oats; deep in rye), the top is crowned with a tuft (pubescence). The pappus is absent only in barley. The cereals of the second group have neither grooves nor pubescence.

The grain of each crop has a different shape. For cereals of the first group:

• ovoid (wheat);
• elongated, pointed towards the base (rye);
• elongated, very narrowed along the entire length (oats);
• elliptical, spindle-shaped (barley).

The surface of the grain is different:

• in wheat and barley - smooth;
• in rye - finely wrinkled;
• in oats it is pubescent.

In cereals of the second group (cereals), the grain form can be of two types:

• elongated oval (rice);
• round (corn, millet, sorghum): the corn kernel may have edges and a sharp point in the upper part; millet grain - pointed at the ends.

The color of grain is influenced by pigments (chlorophyll, carotenoids), which form a color spectrum: from white, gray and greenish to red and black.

Spring and winter crops

There are 2 forms of cereals:

• Winter crops.
• Spring

Spring crops are sown in the spring, they go through their full development cycle during the summer, and are harvested in the fall (later than winter crops).

Winter crops are sown in the fall. Before the beginning of winter, they manage to germinate, go to winter in the tillering phase and in a dormant state, and in the early spring of next year, continuing their life cycle, they actively develop stems and begin bearing fruit in mid-summer.

Winter varieties, using soil moisture reserves in the spring, produce not only an earlier, but also a more abundant harvest.

Compared to spring varieties, winter varieties have less drought resistance and require compliance with certain conditions when growing:

• high snow cover and mild winters;
• fertile soil.

Cereals come in both forms. Among them, winter rye has the greatest frost resistance.

Growing

Cereals are unpretentious, but still require some care. Under optimal conditions, grain yield and quality will be higher.

Cereals of the first group (true breads) have low heat requirements, but need moisture. These are long-day plants that develop quickly from germination to tillering.

There are 70 species found in nature, but only 11 have economic value. The most famous is oats, used for the production of cereals, oat coffee, oatmeal, flour for confectionery and pancakes.

In livestock farming, oats are used as a concentrated feed or an integral part of mixed feed.

Cereals give oats the lead in the production of dietary and baby food: oatmeal cookies, muesli, Hercules cereal. The nutritional value of oats is determined by the optimal content of proteins, starch, organic acids, fats and sugar, which are easily digestible, normalize metabolism, and protect the heart and circulatory system.

Corn

Among cultivated cereals, corn occupies a special place, since its structure is not similar either to representatives of real breads (the first group), or to its “brothers” from the second group, to which it directly belongs.

The stem is unusual: straight and powerful, capable of reaching 5 meters in height, equipped with aerial roots located on the lower above-ground nodes.

The leaf blade is wide, the leaves themselves are long, pubescent on top.

Corn is a monoecious plant, but dioecious, since it has 2 inflorescences: the cob consists of female flowers, the panicle at the top is made of male flowers.

Breeders have developed a huge number of varieties and hybrids, on which the shape and color of the grains, located on the cob in vertical rows, depend.

The homeland of corn is America (Central and South). The ancient Mayans considered it a sacred plant worthy of worship.

It appeared in Europe thanks to Columbus, who saw it for the first time on the island of Cuba.

The main composition of corn grain is starch (70%), protein (10%), fat (8%).

The uses of corn are varied: young cobs are boiled, the grains are frozen and canned, and ground into cereals and flour. Further processing turns the grains into breakfast cereals, popcorn and other treats.

In livestock farming, corn is considered a valuable feed crop.

Rice

The ancestor of modern rice was known in India over 15 thousand years ago. The main cultivation areas are the southern regions on flooded areas.

This high-calorie cereal is called the son of water and sun, the breadwinner of the East, the second bread of humanity, white gold. And this is quite justified, because it feeds more than half of the world's population.

Rice grain consists of 75% starch, 8% protein; The rice shell is rich in vitamin B1.

Rice has a variety of uses: the grain is used to make cereals and flour, and rice straw is used to make high-quality writing paper, hats and mats.

Two dozen species and over a thousand varieties of rice are combined into 3 types according to their shape:

• Long grain - with long and thin grain. Has maximum transparency. The use of this type of rice is universal for oriental and universal cuisine: from salads to side dishes.
• Medium grain - with wide and short grains. Less transparent than long grain, with medium gluten content. The main purpose is paella, risotto, puddings.
• Round grain - with round grains. This type of rice is opaque and has a high starch content. Due to its increased stickiness, it is used for preparing porridges, puddings, casseroles, and sushi.

An interesting feature of rice is known: any variety has a different taste and color depending on its processing and cooking time.

Millet and sorghum

The origin of millet as an agricultural crop dates back to the 3rd millennium BC.

Archaeological excavations in Central Transnistria indicate that millet was cultivated by the ancient Scythians. It came to Europe from India, Mongolia and China. In Ancient China, millet stood on a par with other sacred plants: rice, wheat, barley, soybeans.

The cereal is heat-loving and drought-resistant. Millet grain is the smallest and hardest of all cereals, and its protein content is higher than that of wheat and barley.

The grain is used to make the cereal we know as millet, and the flour from which flatbreads and bread are baked. All parts of the cereal are used to feed livestock: grain, husks, straw, flour.

In cultivated agriculture, there is a grain that resembles millet. Sorghum has been used as a staple grain in the drylands of Africa for 5 millennia. Externally, this grain cereal is similar to millet; in terms of the chemical composition of the grain, it is similar to corn.

Cereals, flour, and starch are produced from sorghum grains, and wickerwork, paper, and brooms are made from straw. Green mass is used in silage.

In the southern regions of the country, where wheat for a long time - the main, leading crop; with proper agricultural technology, even higher yields are obtained. For example, the new winter wheat variety Bezostaya-4 gave an average yield of 40 centners per hectare on collective farm fields. And at the state farm named after. Kalinin, Korenevsky district, Krasnodar region, the same variety of winter wheat yielded 48.6 centners per hectare. On one of the fields of the state farm, with an area of ​​149 hectares, the harvest was even 54.5 centners per hectare. The yield of another new variety - Bezostaya-41 - in 1959 reached 50-60 centners per hectare in variety testing areas. In Siberia and Kazakhstan, on newly developed virgin and fallow lands, the sown area is mainly occupied by spring wheat, the yield of which in 1958 on a number of state farms exceeded 40 centners per hectare.

After wheat, the largest sown area in the USSR is occupied by rye. And throughout the world, its cultivated area is in fourth place - after wheat, rice and corn. To soil and climatic conditions rye less demanding than wheat. It also grows on sandy soils, and produces high yields on sandy soils. In addition, it is more frost-resistant: its crops have crossed the Arctic Circle and now reach 69° N. w. Compared to the pre-revolutionary period, wheat crops in the USSR decreased due to an increase in wheat crops. But in many parts of the country it remains the main food crop.

Among the rye varieties there are both winter and spring varieties. The main area under rye crops in the USSR is occupied by winter varieties, as they are more productive. The best precursor for winter rye is fertilized fallow.

In many regions of the European part of the USSR, winter rye yields in height and stability significantly exceed spring grain yields. For example, the leading collective farms of the Chuvash Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, Moscow, Kursk and other regions receive rye yields of 40 and 50 centners per hectare.

Black bread is made from rye grain. Rye straw is used in agriculture: it is used as bedding for livestock, and mats for greenhouses are knitted from it. Rye straw is also used in industry as a raw material for the production of paper and cardboard.

Winter rye is sometimes grown for spring feeding of productive cattle, since rye produces an abundance of high-quality green fodder earlier than other plants.

Oats grown mainly for livestock feed. But many food products are also produced from it: cereals, oatmeal, oatmeal (rolled oats).

Oat grains are very nutritious. The grain of filmy varieties contains up to 18% protein, about 6% fat and up to 40% starch. Hull oat grain contains up to 23% protein. Oatmeal is well absorbed by the animal's body and is especially useful for young animals. Oatmeal is a dietary product for children. Oat straw and chaff are used as livestock feed. Oat straw is more nutritious than other grain straws.

Most known species of oats grow among wild flora. The cultivated type of oats - the so-called seed oats - is divided into filmy varieties and naked varieties. There are a lot of varieties of oats, and each of them is adapted to certain soil and climatic conditions.

In the USSR, mainly filmy varieties are cultivated. They were bred by Soviet breeders by selecting from ancient local varieties.

Oats produce the highest yields in mild climates and sufficient precipitation. It is less demanding on soil than other grains; Therefore, any crop rotation usually ends with sowing oats. Compared to other grains, oats are the least valuable crop. Therefore, the expansion of plantings of other grains, such as corn, should come primarily through a reduction in plantings of oats.

Occupies a significantly smaller cultivated area than wheat, rye or oats in the Soviet Union barley. It is used mainly for livestock feed, in the brewing industry and for making barley coffee. But there are countries, for example Tibet, where barley is the main grain plant, since other grains do not ripen there: of all grains, barley is the fastest ripening plant.

Cereals, the grain of which is used not for flour or for baking bread, but for making porridge, are called cereals. Millet is the most important cereal grain in the Soviet Union. Cultivated millet is divided according to the shape of the panicle into three main groups: spreading - with long branches and a loose panicle structure, drooping - with long branches that fit tightly to each other, and compact - with short branches that fit very tightly to each other. Millet grains are covered with films and after they are dehulled (cleaned), food millet is obtained.

Among all cereals, millet is the most drought-resistant crop. Therefore, in the USSR it is most often sown in the southeastern regions of the country. With good care, millet yields reach 60 centners per hectare or more.

Millet produces the highest yields when sown over a layer of virgin soil or sown perennial grasses. Therefore, in farming practice, millet is considered a layer crop. You can cultivate millet on soft soils, but they must be free of weeds. Millet seedlings develop very slowly and therefore become heavily clogged with weeds on clogged soils. In addition to virgin soil and sown perennial grasses, row crops are a good predecessor for millet: potatoes and sugar beets. In turn, millet is considered a good predecessor for spring wheat, barley and oats. Millet is very responsive to phosphorus fertilizers.

The best sowing method is wide-row, since millet is a light-loving plant. The seed sowing rate for conventional row sowing is 20-25 kg per hectare, and for wide-row sowing it is half as much; the adaptability of the variety to soil and climatic conditions is also of great importance. Therefore, sowing with varietal and zoned seeds is a mandatory agrotechnical measure. In the USSR, millet sown areas are concentrated in the Kazakh SSR, the Volga region and the Central Black Earth zone. Millet ripens unevenly and falls off easily. Controlling grain losses during millet harvesting is of paramount importance.

For half the world's population, the main food is rice. Rice has the same importance as bread in Japan, China, India, Indonesia, Burma, and Vietnam. It began to be cultivated a very long time ago. In Southeast Asia, rice was known as a cultivated plant already 4-5 thousand years ago. Rice is grown in fields that are flooded with water. But rice is not a swamp plant, but a mountain plant. Its wild species grow, although in a humid climate, but on soil that is not flooded with water. In India, Burma and Vietnam, it was originally cultivated on gentle mountain slopes. Monsoons brought heavy rainfall to these mountains. But since the monsoons are a seasonal phenomenon, with such farming it was possible to harvest only one crop per year. To prevent rainfall from sweeping away the earth from the mountain slopes, stone and earthen ramparts began to be erected around the rice crops. This is how terraces were formed, and the water of monsoon showers lingered on them. For cultivated rice, such abundant moisture turned out to be beneficial. It began to produce large harvests, two or three harvests a year. In terms of productivity, irrigated rice surpasses even millet. Gradually, rice culture descended from the mountains into the valleys, where high-water rivers were used to irrigate crops. Where there are no large rivers, for example on the island of Java, rice is still cultivated on mountain terraces.

With constant flooding of rice fields, the beneficial activity of microorganisms in the soil fades. Therefore, it is better to use shortened flooding: after sowing, 3-4 waterings are carried out, and when the rice reaches waxy ripeness, the water is discharged from the field.

There are now more than 10 thousand varieties of cultivated rice. Soviet breeders developed varieties suitable for our climate. In our country, rice is cultivated in Central Asia, in the Krasnodar Territory, in the south of Ukraine and in the Moldavian SSR. Rice grain is high in nutrients. About 75% of it consists of carbohydrates. Rice straw is a valuable raw material. Thin and durable paper, ropes, ropes, baskets, and hats are made from it.

If you create the best conditions for rice to grow and develop, you can reap an exceptionally high harvest. Until 1958, the largest rice yield was considered to be 170 quintals per hectare. Since 1958, in the People's Republic of China, experimental plots began to produce yields of over 1000 centners per hectare.

Our Chinese friends received such fabulous harvests as a result of thickening the crops, deep tillage and abundant application of mineral and organic fertilizers. Rice culture in China is a transplant crop. Previously, there were about a million rice plants per hectare of crops there; on a hectare of experimental plots there are tens of times more of them - due to transplantation from other plots. With such a sowing density, there is almost no free space between plants. Rice in a thickened area is just ripening on the root, and the area of ​​other areas is freed up for new planting. The grown and strengthened plants were transplanted to the experimental plot in deeply plowed and fertilized soil in several layers. They fertilized it with manure, silt, ground bones, leaves of bast crops, and chemical fertilizers.

But our Chinese friends receive high rice yields not only from experimental plots. For example, in five provinces - Jiangsu, Anhui, Hubei, Sichuan and Henan - an average rice yield of 375 centners per hectare was obtained in 1958.

Buckwheat grain is chemically similar to cereal grains. Buckwheat is used to prepare cereals. Therefore, we consider buckwheat in the same section with cereals, although it belongs to the buckwheat family.

Buckwheat- an annual herbaceous plant with a strongly branched, reddish and ribbed, non-lodging stem, up to a meter high. It is cultivated in all temperate countries, but the first place in terms of the size of sown areas and gross grain harvest belongs to the Soviet Union.

Buckwheat has the greatest economic importance. The nutritional value of its grain is higher than that of cereal grains. Buckwheat grain contains a lot of iron and organic acids (citric and malic). Its protein and carbohydrates are well absorbed by the body. Buckwheat has good taste.

Buckwheat is the most important honey plant, but the honey it produces is dark. Buckwheat flowering begins from the lower inflorescences, moves to the upper ones and extends in time until harvesting, so the period of honey collection from buckwheat crops is quite long. Buckwheat also ripens unevenly, and ripe grains may fall off. Therefore, buckwheat harvesting usually begins when two-thirds of the grains on the plant have reached full ripeness.

Buckwheat is an early ripening crop. From its germination to ripening it takes from 65 to 80 days. In the southern regions of the USSR, if there is a sufficient amount of precipitation in the second half of summer, with good agricultural technology it can produce high yields even in stubble sowing, that is, in sowing after harvesting.

When sowing in spring, winter rye, wheat, potatoes, beets, and flax will be good predecessors for it. Buckwheat seedlings are sensitive to frost, and its seeds germinate well at a soil temperature of 12-13°.

Buckwheat roots dissolve substances containing phosphoric acid well. Therefore, it is advisable to apply less superphosphate to buckwheat, but cheaper phosphate rock (see article “Fertilizers and their use”). Then, at a rate of 5-6 centners per hectare, it can increase the grain yield by one and a half to two times. Fresh manure or exclusively nitrogen fertilizers cause strong growth of green mass in buckwheat to the detriment of grain formation. If you add nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilizers to the soil, the yield of buckwheat increases sharply.

Buckwheat harvests have been low and unstable in the past. Currently, the leading collective farms of Ukraine, Tula, Moscow, Gorky and other regions receive buckwheat yields of 15-25 and even 30 centners per hectare.

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GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Grain crops are divided into two groups based on morphological characteristics and biological characteristics.

The breads of the first group belong to the Bluegrass family ( Roaseae) and include wheat, rye, barley, oats and triticale. Plants of this group are characterized by the following characteristics: the inflorescence is a spike (in oats it is a panicle), the fruit is a grain with a longitudinal groove, the stem is a straw, usually hollow; the root system is fibrous, the grain sprouts with several roots. Winter and spring plants are less demanding of heat, but require moisture, and are long-day plants.

The breads of the second group also belong to the Poa family, these are corn, sorghum, rice and chumise. Distinctive features of plants of this group: inflorescence - panicle (in corn, the female inflorescence is the cob, the male inflorescence is the panicle), the stem is a straw with a core; the root system is fibrous, the grain germinates with one root; The fruit is a caryopsis, there is no groove. Represented only by spring forms, the plants are more demanding of heat and light, drought-resistant (except for rice), and belong to short-day plants.

The largest area under crops among agricultural crops is occupied by wheat, the area of ​​which in world agriculture is 210.6 million hectares, of which 22.6 million hectares are in Russia. Wheat is used primarily for food. According to the baking qualities of flour, soft wheat, which has 42 chromosomes in somatic cells, is divided into three groups: strong, medium and weak. The protein content in strong wheat grain is at least 14%, raw gluten - 28, glassiness - at least 60%. The highest quality bread is baked from this flour.

Medium-strength wheat has good baking properties and is capable of producing bread of quite satisfactory quality without the addition of strong flour, but it does not improve the flour of weak wheat. The grain contains 11–13.9% protein and 25–27% gluten.

Weak wheat has little baking power. The grain of weak wheat contains less than 11% protein, and less than 25% gluten. Flour from weak wheat absorbs relatively little water during kneading, resulting in an inelastic dough. Bread baked from such flour is characterized by reduced volume, low porosity and spreads across the hearth. It is not possible to bake bread of standard quality from weak wheat flour without adding improvers. Grain or flour from weak wheat is improved by mixing it with grain or flour obtained from strong wheat.

Durum wheat, which has 28 chromosomes in somatic cells, is distinguished by valuable properties: glassiness, good protein quality, and high gliadin content. It is indispensable for the production of semolina, pasta, and confectionery.

The technological properties of wheat mainly depend on the group of so-called storage proteins. Gliadins and glutenins are proteins that form gluten. They determine the baking properties of soft wheat and the quality of pasta. Glutenin has the properties of elasticity and extensibility. Gliadin does not stretch well, and when dried it becomes hard, brittle and transparent. The quality of gluten depends on the ratio between gliadin and glutenin. The best ratio for baking is 1:1. Durum wheat grain is dominated by gliadin, and for this reason only pasta is produced from its flour. It is difficult to bake normal bread from durum wheat flour, since due to the predominance of gliadin in the reserve protein, it does not rise well on the baking tray during baking.

More than half of the soft wheat produced on the globe is weak wheat grain that needs improvement. There is half as much production of medium wheat on the globe – 25–30%, and even less (10–15%) of strong wheat.

In Russia, the main supplier of strong wheat is the Volga region. A certain combination of weather conditions and chernozem soils are the factors that determine the world fame of these wheats.

Wheat grain yields in exporting countries are as follows (t/ha): USA -2.37; Canada – 1.76; Mexico – 5.15; Australia - 0.85. The highest yields are obtained in Germany (6.9 t/ha) and France (7.4 t/ha).

Cereals are usually divided into winter, spring and two-handed.

For the normal development of winter grains (winter rye, winter wheat, winter barley), autumn sowing is necessary. When sown in spring, they only bush and do not form straw or ears. To pass the vernalization stage, winter grains require a low temperature - from 0 to 10 ° C for 30–65 days (depending on the variety).

To pass the vernalization stage, spring forms require higher temperatures (5–20 °C) for 7–20 days, so they are sown in the spring and harvested in the same year.

Two-handed fish go through the vernalization stage at a temperature of 3–15°C. In the southern regions of the country there are a number of varieties that grow and develop normally and produce crops when sown in spring and autumn.

The resistance of wheat to a complex of unfavorable conditions during the overwintering period is usually called winter hardiness. The ability of plants to withstand the effects of low temperatures is called frost resistance.

Of the winter crops, rye is the most frost-resistant, withstanding frosts down to –20 °C or more at the depth of the tillering node. Winter wheat is less resistant in this regard, for which temperatures below –16 °C are dangerous. Winter barley is damaged at frost temperatures of –12 °C.

The main reason for the death or damage of winter wheat in winter is the effect of low temperatures. At this time, water freezes in the intercellular spaces of plants and ice crystals form. At the same time, the formed ice crystals draw water from the cells, this increases the concentration of cell sap and dehydrates the protoplasm. As a result of dehydration and mechanical pressure, the surface of the protoplasm is damaged, as a result of which it loses its water permeability. Dehydration of protoplasm to a certain limit entails its coagulation, colloidal coagulation and cell death.

It is generally accepted that at an air temperature of –30 °C, winter wheat does not freeze out when the snow cover is 20 cm deep. To prevent the death of winter crops from freezing, the following measures are taken: prepare the soil in such a way that by the time of sowing, a sufficient amount of moisture has formed at the seeding depth; maintain the optimal seeding rate; achieve uniform shoots, sufficient standing density, good plant development before going into winter; Frost-resistant varieties are used and snow retention is carried out.

Under the ice crust, winter crops die from lack of oxygen and mechanical pressure of ice on the tissue. Dealing with the ice crust is quite difficult. The most effective means of combating it is snow retention. Carried out even after the formation of an ice crust, it protects crops from freezing. Snow not only insulates crops, but during thaws melt water destroys the crust, it becomes more loose and spongy. To destroy the ice crust, humus, peat chips (3–5 t/ha) or potassium salt (0.1–0.3 t/ha) are scattered over the surface. When the ice crust becomes loose after rains and thaws, it is destroyed by ring-spur rollers. To avoid the formation of ruts, this work is carried out during morning frosts and is done carefully so as not to damage the tillering nodes.

Damping off occurs when snow falls early on unfrozen soil. This phenomenon is characteristic mainly of the Non-Chernozem zone, where a thick snow cover remains for a long time (4–5 months) at a soil temperature of about 0 °C. Plants in this case die not from lack of oxygen, but from exhaustion. While spending accumulated nutrients (mainly carbohydrates) on respiration, plants in conditions of almost complete darkness (under snow) do not replenish their reserves through assimilation. To prevent the death of winter crops from damping off, the crops are rolled in the fall (after snow falls on the thawed ground). Thanks to this technique, the snow is compacted, soil freezing is accelerated, as a result of which the vital activity in the plants ceases and they do not damp out. Timely sowing also plays an important role: too early and thickened sowings increase the risk of death from damping off.

Soaking of winter wheat is observed in areas of excessive moisture, as well as in low terrain where water stagnates. Open drainage is used as control measures. To do this, accelerating furrows are installed in the moistened area after sowing, removing excess water and preventing its stagnation. Wells are drilled into the “saucers” down to the sand layer and excess moisture is drained. Ridge sowing and sowing of varieties resistant to waterlogging are also used.

Protrusion occurs when seeds are sown in freshly plowed soil without rolling. In plants sown in excessively loose soil, when it settles under the influence of its own mass and precipitation, the tillering nodes appear on the surface. When exposed to frost, such plants die or weaken. When the tillering nodes are exposed, spring rolling of winter crops with ring rollers is recommended. As a result, the tillering node is pressed against the soil, causing an influx of moisture and accelerating the formation of new, secondary roots.

WINTER WHEAT

National economic significance, cultivation areas, productivity, varieties. In the country's grain balance, winter wheat accounts for 20 to 24% of the gross grain harvest.

Winter wheat makes good use of autumn and spring moisture. It develops a powerful root system that penetrates deeply into the soil, thanks to which it absorbs nutrients well and suffers less from drought than spring crops. It is also protected from drought and hot winds due to its early ripening. Having almost the same food value as spring wheat, winter wheat is very valuable in organizational and economic terms. Sowing in autumn and earlier (7-10 days) harvesting compared to spring wheat allows for more complete use of labor and means of production.

In Russia, winter wheat is grown from the south of the Arkhangelsk region to the southern regions of the country. The southern regions are most favorable for it. This crop occupies the largest area in Russia in the North Caucasus (almost 50% of the sown area of ​​winter wheat). In the North Caucasus it is the main food crop. In recent years, the area of ​​winter wheat in the Volga region has increased significantly. Winter wheat also occupies large areas in the Central Black Earth and Non-Black Earth zones.

In the forest-steppe and steppe regions of Siberia, winter wheat is practically not cultivated, and in Eastern Siberia and the Far East it is not sown at all. The main obstacle to the successful cultivation of winter wheat in these areas is the lack of winter-hardy varieties.

The average yield of winter wheat is 2.9 t/ha, and that of wheat cultivated using intensive technology is 5–6 t/ha.

Russian breeders have created a large number of valuable varieties of wheat that have no equal in winter hardiness, drought resistance, flour-grinding and baking properties. The most widespread varieties are Zarya, Bezenchukskaya 380, Mironovskaya 808, Moskovskaya 39, Saratovskaya 90, Tarasovskaya 29.

During different periods of the growing season, winter wheat makes different demands on temperature conditions. The minimum temperature for seed germination is 1–2 °C.

The optimal time for sowing winter wheat occurs when the air temperature is 14–17 °C. For its autumn development, it takes approximately 45–50 days when sowing in black fallow, and 50–55 days when sowing in fallow. During this period, plants (when average daily air temperatures pass through 5 °C and sufficient moisture) develop well and achieve high winter hardiness.

Winter wheat bushes in autumn and spring. Increased tillering is observed with sufficient humidity and a temperature of 8–10 °C. As the temperature drops to 3–4 °C, tillering stops. Sowing dates affect the resistance of winter wheat to low temperatures. If sown in a timely manner, the plants will form three to four stems before going into winter. High temperatures in spring and lack of moisture in the soil are not conducive to tillering.

High temperature (35–40 °C) with very dry air during grain filling has a negative effect on its completion: the grain becomes small and puny. During the wheat ripening phase, the most favorable air temperature is 22–25 °C.

The total sum of positive temperatures from sowing to full ripeness is 1850–2200 °C. The length of the growing season varies (including winter) from 275 to 350 days.

For swelling and the beginning of germination of wheat seeds, 45–60% moisture by weight of air-dry grain is required. In the first period of development of winter wheat, when the root system is just beginning to form, moistening the top layer of soil is important. Friendly shoots appear when there is more than 10 mm of moisture in a 10-centimeter layer of soil.

Winter wheat consumes the greatest amount of moisture during the period from emergence to flowering. After flowering and until the end of milky ripeness, grain is formed. Lack of moisture after flowering can lead to through-grain and empty heads. With a lack of moisture at the end of milky and beginning of waxy ripeness, the weight of 1000 grains decreases.

With the onset of waxy ripeness, the stems turn yellow, most of the leaves turn yellow and die, so the plant’s need for moisture decreases, and at the end of waxy ripeness, wheat does not need water at all.

The optimal soil moisture for winter wheat in the zone of distribution of the bulk of the roots (up to 60 cm) is no less than 70–75% (especially in the heading phase), and in the absence of atmospheric drought, 65% of the RPV.

Winter wheat places high demands on the soil. It must be highly fertile, structural, contain a sufficient amount of nutrients, and have a neutral or slightly acidic (pH 6.0–7.5) soil solution reaction. It is best to cultivate winter wheat on chernozems, but it also grows successfully on slightly podzolic loamy soils of the Non-Chernozem Zone with sufficient application of organic and mineral fertilizers. Acidic and light sandy soils are unsuitable for winter wheat.

Place in crop rotation. Winter wheat is more demanding on its predecessors than other winter crops. It can produce high yields if its root system and vegetative mass are well developed before going into winter. Such conditions are created by steam tillage and the use of fertilizers. The best predecessors for winter wheat are clean and occupied fallows, grain legumes, a layer of perennial grasses, etc. However, in certain areas of wheat cultivation, preference should be given to specific predecessors.

Fertilizers. In winter wheat, two periods of increased nitrogen consumption are observed: at the beginning of growth and during grain filling. A lack of nitrogen in the first period leads to a decrease in yield, and in the second - to a noticeable deterioration in grain quality and less accumulation of proteins.

The greatest need for phosphorus is observed from the time of germination to flowering. Phosphorus fertilizers are used most vigorously during four to five weeks of growth (tillering phase). Phosphorus activates the growth of the root system and accelerates the ripening of grains.

Potassium comes from the soil from the first days of plant growth until flowering. However, its greater consumption is observed during the booting and heading phases of winter wheat. Potassium improves the overwintering of plants, strengthens the straw, and reduces damage to crops by root rot and rust.

Soil cultivation. The soil tillage system for winter wheat depends on the predecessor, weediness of the fields, and cultivation area.

Black steam treatment begins in the fall with soil peeling. You cannot be late with the first spring steam treatment (harrowing) and subsequent loosening. They are necessary to retain moisture and promote weed germination.

The essence of the spring-summer layer-by-layer cultivation of black fallow with moldboard implements is that each layer of soil during this period should be in the upper part of the arable layer for some time. To do this, the depth of each subsequent treatment is increased by several centimeters (3–5 cm). Such treatments are carried out from 3 to 5, gradually increasing its depth to 10–12 cm. Weed seeds turned to the surface germinate, the seedlings destroy them, and subsequent deeper treatment captures more and more new portions of weed seeds. In this way, the arable layer is cleared of those weeds whose seeds are capable of germinating. Layer-by-layer steam treatment is used only in areas of sufficient moisture.

If manure is added to the fallow in the spring, then the first treatment is combined with its plowing with plows without skimmers to a depth of 18–20 cm.

In areas of sufficient moisture, especially on podzolic soils prone to flooding, in addition, three to four weeks before sowing, plowing is carried out - double fallow. You cannot be late with this, because the weeds turned up during plowing do not have time to germinate before sowing winter crops and will not be destroyed by pre-sowing cultivation. After double fallow, the soil must settle before sowing.

In arid and semi-arid areas, in contrast to areas of sufficient moisture, spring-summer treatments have the opposite sequence: from deeper to shallower and end at the depth of seed placement. In wet years, pure steam treatment is carried out more often and deeper. In dry years, when there is little moisture in the soil and weeds appear more slowly, the number and depth of spring-summer tillage is reduced and the soil is rolled.

Caring for crops. When sowing winter wheat in loose soil over occupied fallows and non-fallow predecessors, especially in dry years, the field must be rolled with ring rollers while harrowing with light harrows. Rolling promotes the movement of moisture into the upper layers of the soil, which promotes rapid and friendly emergence of seedlings and good autumn tillering, and also eliminates the possibility of soil subsidence, resulting in improved overwintering conditions.

Harvest. A serious factor in increasing the gross harvest of winter wheat grain is the fight against losses during harvesting. You can shorten its time and bring grain losses to a minimum by correct use of the separate harvesting method and a reasonable combination of it with direct combining.

WINTER RYE

National economic significance, cultivation areas, productivity, varieties. Winter rye is one of the most important food crops in our country. Various types of bread are baked from rye flour, which have high taste qualities (Minsk, Borodino, custard, Ukrainian, Riga, etc.) and contain complete proteins and vitamins B 1, B 2, B 6, PP, E. In terms of calorie content, rye bread is significantly superior to wheat, although inferior to it in digestibility and digestibility. Many people, especially those suffering from obesity, are better off eating rye bread than white bread. The Institute of Nutrition of the Academy of Medical Sciences of the Russian Federation recommends including 16–18% rye bread in the diet of most groups of the country's population from the total daily consumption of bread.

Rye grain is used for feed purposes. Hay flour, silage, haylage, green fodder, and hay are prepared from plants. Rye grain also has technical significance. It is used in the distillery and starch industries. Rye straw is widely used in everyday life for making mats, baskets, hats, and it is also used as a valuable bedding material in livestock farming. Paper is made from rye straw, cellulose, lignin and other materials are obtained.

The chemical composition of rye grain varies depending on soil and climatic conditions, the level of agricultural technology and varietal characteristics. In wet years, the amount of protein decreases sharply (to 7–8%), and in dry years it increases to 15–16%. The highest protein content is observed in the southern and eastern regions of the country, and the lowest in the northern and western regions.

In world agriculture, rye occupies 9.5 million hectares, which is only 4.6% of the area occupied by wheat. Among European countries, significant areas of rye are found in Poland - 1.58 million hectares and Germany - 728 thousand hectares. In grain exporting countries, rye crops are insignificant.

In Western Europe, rye was once the main bread for the population of most countries in the region. Nowadays its crops have shrunk. As a result of long-term competition, it retained its position only in conditions that were not entirely favorable for wheat: on poor, especially sandy, lands in cool climate zones, that is, in the northern or foothill regions. The only food product for mass consumption, rye bread, is quickly being forced out of the diet of the Western European population. Currently, in Western countries, less rye is used for food than for feed. But this trend of its transformation from a food crop to a feed crop is seen as the result of influence on the grain industry from governments that support the production of this crop by extremely high prices so that farmers do not go bankrupt and do not leave these lands, suitable for cultivation of grain crops only winter rye.

In our country, with its harsh climatic conditions, the rye crop has played and will continue to play a significant role in the economy, and, consequently, in the nutrition of the population. Russia has the largest area of ​​rye crops in the world – 3.5 million hectares.

The main crops are concentrated in the Middle Volga, Central, Volga-Vyatka regions, as well as in the Central Black Earth Region and Western Siberia.

The average yield of rye in the world is 2.22 t/ha, in Russia 1.83 t/ha; the highest is in Germany (5.0 t/ha).

The most common rye variety is Chulpan, which has a short straw and resistance to lodging. The varieties Vyatka 2, Voskhod 2, Saratovskaya 6, Purga, Talovskaya 33 and Tatarskaya 1 are also sown on large areas.

Requirements for environmental factors. Rye grains, in the presence of moisture in the soil, can germinate at a temperature of 1–2 °C, and seedlings appear at 4–5 °C.

The total bushiness of winter rye by the end of the autumn growing season is on average 4–5 shoots, which is slightly higher than that of winter wheat. It bushes especially well when the average daily air temperature in September is 12 °C.

In autumn, winter rye develops normally in 50–55 days (depending on the zone) at a sum of average daily temperatures of 450–550 °C. In spring it bushes more strongly in cases where autumn tillering was relatively weak. Strong tillering of plants and their rapid growth suppress weeds in crops. Therefore, rye is of great importance in crop rotation as a weed-cleaning crop.

Among winter breads, winter rye is the most frost-resistant crop. In snowless winters, it tolerates frosts down to -20 °C or more at the depth of the tillering node. Under a snow cover 20–30 cm thick, rye can withstand air temperatures of –50...

When there is a lack of moisture in the fall, rye goes into the winter without sufficient bushing, as a result, the crops are thinned out and the yield decreases.

Winter rye is one of the relatively drought-resistant plants, which is explained by the good development of its root system. This allows winter rye to withstand spring drought by using moisture from the deep layers of the soil. The greatest moisture consumption is observed during the period of rapid growth from emergence to heading. Lack of moisture during this period causes the formation of small and unproductive ears.

Winter rye is less demanding on soil than other grain crops. It is widespread on podzolic soils of the Non-Chernozem zone and on light loamy soils. The root system of rye (compared to other grains) better absorbs nutrients from poorly soluble compounds. For example, winter rye uses phosphoric acid better than wheat, especially from sparingly soluble phosphorus compounds.

Winter rye is widely cultivated on podzolic, light sandy loam and light loamy soils, as well as on soils with high acidity (pH 5.3). Light sandy loam soils are often called “rye” soils, since rye grows well (Bryansk region). However, black soils are considered the best soils for rye. Thus, winter rye can be successfully cultivated both on podzolic soils of the north and on southern chernozems.

Intensive cultivation technology. Place in crop rotation. Winter rye is less demanding on its predecessors than winter wheat. In the central and western regions of the Non-Black Earth zone of Russia, lupine and legume-oat mixtures (vetch, peas mixed with oats) are good fallow crops. Their value as a predecessor of winter crops lies in the early harvest time, since their mowing ripeness occurs 65–75 days after sowing.

In suburban farms, it is very profitable to use fallow for early potatoes. To create good conditions for the development of winter rye, potatoes must be harvested no later than two weeks before sowing (late July - early August). Flax is sometimes used as a steam precursor in the Non-Chernozem Zone.

IN north- in the eastern regions, the Cis-Ural region (the Republic of Mari El and the Udmurt Republic, the Kirov and Perm regions), and the western regions of the Sverdlovsk region, winter rye produces high yields only in clean, well-fertilized fallows. The importance of clean fallow is explained by low fertility, poor cultivation of podzolic and soddy-podzolic soils and a shorter growing season than in other zones.

In most of the Central Black Earth zone, moisture is unstable and insufficient, especially in the second half of summer, so clean vapors play an important role here too. Good predecessors in this zone are legume-oat mixtures, corn for green fodder and early silage, as well as early grain legumes (peas). Peas are harvested 1.5 months before sowing winter rye, which makes it possible to prepare the soil and sow winter rye at the optimal time.

In the forest-steppe zone of the Volga region (Bashkortostan, Ulyanovsk, Penza regions and forest-steppe regions of the Samara region), the best predecessors of winter rye are pure fallow and clover. Good fallow crops are peas, vetch-oat mixture, and rank for hay.

In the steppe regions of the Volga region (Saratov, Volgograd regions), Western and Eastern Siberia, winter rye is planted mainly in pure fallows.

Rye itself is a good predecessor, as it produces a full grain harvest in the same place for two years in a row. The possibility of re-seeding rye is based mainly on the fact that it is less susceptible to root rot. However, with long-term cultivation on the same field, the yield of winter rye is noticeably reduced, especially in the Non-Chernozem zone.

Fertilizers. To form 1 ton of grain and the corresponding amount of straw, rye consumes an average of 31 kg of nitrogen, 13.7 kg of phosphorus and 26 kg of potassium. The maximum average daily intake of phosphorus and potassium occurs during the period of booting - heading. The maximum supply of nitrogen is observed somewhat later, but by the beginning of flowering it decreases sharply.

Soil cultivation. The first spring fallow treatment (harrowing and subsequent loosening) should not be delayed. This treatment is necessary to retain moisture in the soil and promote weed germination.

The most effective is layer-by-layer treatment of fallow, which is carried out as for winter wheat, taking into account weediness, degree of soil compaction and prevailing weather conditions. On soils of a heavier granulometric composition that are susceptible to subsidence and floating, plowing (doubling) with a plow without a skimmer is advisable no later than 20–25 days before sowing winter rye.

Grain They call a product that consists of a collection of a large number of grains or seeds of a particular crop - cereal, legumes, oilseeds.

A commercial batch of grain receives the name of a specific grain crop (wheat, rye, etc.) if it contains at least 85% of the grains of this crop. If the number of grains of the main crop is less than this norm, the batch is called a mixture of grains of different crops, indicating the composition as a percentage. For example, a mixture: wheat + rye (60 + 40).

Of exceptional importance among plants cultivated by humans are plants with dry fruits - grains (in cereals), beans (in legumes), seeds (in some oilseeds), etc.

Cereal grains, seeds of legumes and oilseeds are well preserved, so it is natural that from time immemorial man began to use them in food and feed them to animals.

Structure The grains of all cereal crops are approximately the same, and it can be considered using the example of wheat grain. Its shape is oval. Its convex side is called the back, the opposite side is called the abdomen. A notch (groove) runs along the abdomen. At the sharp end of the grain there is pubescence (tuft, beard), and at the blunt end there is an embryo.

The fruit shell covers the outside and protects the grain. It consists of four layers of translucent cells, contains a lot of fiber, lignin, pengosans, and mineral salts, which make up 5-6% of the grain weight. The fruit membranes are not digested by the body.

The seed coat consists of three layers of cells and makes up 6-8% of the grain mass. They are richer in minerals, nitrogenous substances, sugars and have less fiber and pentosans. The pigment layer of the seed coat gives the grain its corresponding color.

Fruit and seed shells impair the presentation of flour and cereals, their nutritional value, and consistency, therefore, when obtaining flour and cereals, they are separated.

Inner grain(Fig. 2.1). The endosperm, or mealy kernel, makes up 80-85% of the grain mass and is its most valuable part for the production of flour and cereals. Consists mainly of starch and proteins, contains small amounts of sugar, fat, vitamins and very few minerals. All valuable products of grain processing are obtained from endosperm.

Rice. 2.1. Longitudinal section of wheat grain: 1 - rudimentary roots; 2- embryo; 3 - kidney; 4 — shield; 5 - endosperm; 6 - crest

The germ makes up an average of 3% of the mass of the grain and contains a lot of sugars and enzymes. However, during processing it is removed, since the fat goes rancid during storage, causing spoilage of grain processing products - flour and cereals.

The aleurone (outer) layer of the mealy kernel is adjacent to the seed coat. It makes up 4-13.5% of the mass of the grain, contains a large amount of proteins, fats, sugars, minerals, vitamins, but these valuable substances are almost not absorbed, since the cells in which they are located are covered with thick membranes of fiber. When grinding grains, the aleurone layer is separated along with the shells.

Legume seeds plants consist of an embryo and two cotyledons, and have practically no endosperm. The seed is protected by a dense seed coat, the outer part of which is covered with a cuticle - a thin film of cutin.

Sunflower and soybean seeds consist mainly of an embryo with one row of endosperm cells and are protected by a seed coat.

Cereals

Main cereal crops- wheat, rye, millet, barley, rice, oats, corn, buckwheat.

Wheat - main grain crop. According to the sowing time, it is divided into spring and winter. Depending on the botanical characteristics, they are divided into main types - soft and hard (Fig. 2.2).

Soft wheat has a grain of glassy, ​​semi-vitreous or mealy consistency, round or oval in shape, slightly expanded towards the germ, with a pronounced beard and deep groove. The color of the grain can be white, red or yellow. Soft wheat is used in confectionery and baking industries.

Rice. 2.2. Wheat grain: a - soft; b - solid

According to technological properties, soft wheat is divided into three groups:

• strong wheat - contains an increased amount of protein (over 16%), elastic, elastic gluten and at least 60% glassy grains;
• the average occupies an intermediate position, characterized by average quality indicators;
• weak contains 9-12% protein and produces low-quality gluten; to improve baking properties, strong or durum wheat is added to it.

Durum wheat significantly different from soft. The grain is more elongated in shape with a thickening on the back near the embryo, ribbed, glassy in section, translucent, the beard is poorly developed, the groove is open, shallowly entering the grain. Color ranges from light to dark amber. It contains more protein, sugar and minerals than bread wheat. Durum wheat is used for the production of pasta, semolina, and is added when grinding wheat with low baking properties to produce semolina flour.

Rye- winter-hardy winter crop. A grain of rye is longer than a grain of wheat. The color of the grain is yellow, gray-green, purple, brown. Gray-green grains are larger than others, contain more proteins and have better baking properties.

Rye contains less endosperm than wheat, therefore, more shells with an aleurone layer, and less proteins in it (9-13%). A feature of rye proteins is that they are not able to form gluten. They are used mainly to produce flour and in small quantities to produce malt and alcohol.

Triticale- a winter-hardy cereal, a hybrid of wheat and rye. The grain is larger than wheat and rye. The proteins of this cereal are complete and well absorbed by the body. The gluten from triticale flour is washed off, so its baking properties are closer to wheat. Depending on the variety, triticale bread can be white, gray or dark in color.

Millet - valuable heat-loving and drought-resistant cereal crop, grown as a spring crop. The grain is covered with floral films that are easily separated from the kernel; the shape of the grain can be spherical, oval-elongated, and the endosperm is glassy or mealy.

Barley - a fast-ripening (growing season lasts 70 days) spring crop that grows everywhere. Divided into six-row and two-row. Pearl barley and barley groats are produced from barley, and flour and malt are partially obtained. This cereal is the main raw material for brewing production and is used to feed livestock.

Rice - moisture- and heat-loving grain crop. The shape is oblong (narrow and wide) and round. Its endosperm can be glassy, ​​semi-vitreous and mealy. The most valuable is glassy rice, since during hulling (a technological process as a result of which the grain is separated from the shells), it is crushed less and gives a greater yield of grain.

Oats - a moisture-loving and rather heat-demanding crop. It is grown everywhere, sown as a spring crop, and ripens quickly. The color of the grain is white or yellow. In addition to starch and proteins, grain contains a lot of fat (4-6%). It is used for fattening livestock and for obtaining cereals.

Corn according to the shape, structure of the cob and grain, it is divided into siliceous, tooth-shaped, semi-tooth-shaped, sugar, filmy, starchy, waxy, bursting, etc. Contains less protein than other cereals, but more fat (up to 5%), which is found mainly in embryo. The germ is separated and used to produce oil. Cereals, starch, alcohol, and molasses are obtained from corn.

Buckwheat has a triangular fruit, covered not with floral films, like in cereals, but with a dense fruit shell, under which there is a core consisting of a seed coat, aleurone layer, endosperm and a large embryo in the form of an S-shaped curved plate. The fruit of buckwheat is a triangular nut of gray, brown or black color, weight of 100 fruits is 20-30 g, filminess is 18-30%.

Legumes

Peas, beans, lentils, chickpeas, chickpeas, soybeans, and beans are of food importance (Fig. 2.3). Legume seeds are covered on the outside with a dense shell, under which lie two cotyledons connected by a sprout.

Legumes contain: proteins 30% or more (valuable in composition, as they are rich in essential amino acids), carbohydrates up to 60%, fat about 2% (except for soybeans, which contain fats up to 20%, carbohydrates up to 30%, proteins up to 40%) .

The disadvantage of legumes is the slow digestion of their seeds (from 90 to 120 minutes). To speed up cooking, the seeds of some legumes (peas, lentils) are crushed, i.e. remove the seed coat. This reduces the cooking time by about 2 times.

Peas originates from Afghanistan and East India. The fruit of a pea - a bean - consists of leaves and seeds. Based on the structure of the bean shells, pea varieties are divided into sugar and shelling varieties. Sugar beans are used for food together with seeds in the form of so-called blades. The shells of shelled varieties are not edible. When the seeds ripen, the bean shells easily separate, which is why these varieties of peas are called shelling peas.

Rice. 2.3. Beans of various grain legumes: a - peas; 6-lentils; c - chickpeas; g - beans; d - vetch; e - broad beans; g - soybean; z - lupine

Shelling varieties are divided into brain varieties, which in milky ripeness are used for preparing canned vegetables (green peas), and smooth-seeded varieties, which at full maturity are divided into two types: food and fodder. Food peas, depending on the color of the cotyledons, are white, yellow and green. Based on seed size, peas are divided into large, medium and small.

Pea seeds retain their nutritional and taste properties for 10-12 years.

Beans Based on color, they are divided into three types: white, monochromatic and variegated.

Lentils- the oldest agricultural crop, known in Russia since the 14th century. The seeds, 5 mm in diameter, resemble a biconvex lens. There are two types - northern, growing in the central regions of Russia, and southern, grown in Ukraine.

Soy - universal world legume crop. Flour, butter, milk, cheese are obtained from soybeans; it is added to confectionery, canned food, sauces and other food products. Soybeans are used only after industrial processing. In their natural form, soybeans are not suitable for food.

Chickpeas And rank are in many ways similar to peas. They are eaten, like peas, fresh, boiled and fried. Canned food is made from them, and cookies and other products are made from flour.

Legumes appeared in Russia in the 8th-10th centuries. They are eaten in green and ripe form, and are also processed into canned food.

Classification grains and legume seeds are carried out according to their intended purpose, chemical composition, and botanical characteristics.

By intended purpose Grains and legumes are divided into the following groups:

• food (flour and cereal grains) - grain of wheat, rye, cereal crops (buckwheat, millet, rice, etc.) and legume seeds (peas, beans, lentils, etc.);
• feed - barley, oats and corn, as well as seeds of some legumes (vetch, china, broad beans, etc.);
• technical - malting barley, soybeans, rye and oats for processing into malt.

By chemical composition Grains and legumes are divided into three groups: rich in starch (cereals, buckwheat); rich in protein (legume seeds); rich in oil (soybeans, oilseeds and essential oils).

By botanical characteristics Grains and legumes are divided into monocots (cereals and buckwheat) and dicotyledons (legume seeds). Cereals (rye, barley, oats), the grain of which has a pubescence (beard) and a depression (groove), come in winter and spring forms; millet-like breads, or false ones (millet, rice, corn, sorghum), the grain of which does not have a beard or groove, are grown in the spring form.

According to botanical characteristics, grain crops are also divided into families, families are divided into genera, genera into species, species into varieties, and the latter are already divided into breeding varieties based on economic characteristics.

Botanical characteristics - type, variety, shape, size, color, consistency, structure of grain - are widely used in commodity classifications to establish the type and subtype of grain and seeds. This division allows the formation of batches of grain and seeds with similar technological and nutritional properties.