Closely related to the idea is pathos (Greek pathos - feeling, passion) - inspiration, a passionate experience of emotional upliftment caused by an idea or event. In pathos, thought and feeling form a single whole. Aristotle understood pathos as the passion that motivates one to write a work. By. Belinsky, pathos is “an idea - passion.” “From here,” notes A. Tkachenko, “the conceptual tautology originates: you define the idea through pathos, and pathos through the idea. The apogee of departure from original essence the concept of pathos can be considered a statement according to which all types of pathos are created by contradictions social characters, I ki writers comprehend on the basis ideological positions. These positions include the partisanship of the social thinking of writers and are conditioned. The classism of their worldview"A. Tkachenko believes that the authors of the textbook "Introduction to. Literary Studies" edited by G. Pospelov, naming such types of pathos as heroic, dramatic, tragic, satirical, humorous, sentimental, romantic, do not comply with the unity of other classification criteria. Dramatic, tragic, satirical are associated with genres, and sentimental and romantic - literary directions. Pathos, according to A. Tkachenko, is excessive rhetorical theatricality. He proposes to use the term “tonality.” In addition to pathetic tonality, there are lyrical tonality with such subtypes as sentimentality, romance, humor, and dramatic; with tragic, satirical, sarcastic, sentimental, romantic subtypes; epic with subtypes: heroic, descriptive, fantastic; epic with subtypes: heroic, descriptive, fantastic.

Each type of tonality has its own shades. So, in lyrics, the tonality can be nostalgic, melancholic, mathematical. Positive emotions are associated with major key. According to opinion. A. Tkachenko, pathos is more historical, deliberate than tonality.

Heroic pathos

The subject of heroic pathos is the heroism of reality itself - the activities of people who overcome the elements of nature, fight the reactionary forces of society, defending freedom and independence. Fatherland. Heroic loan important place in mythology. Ancient. Greece, where, along with the images of gods, there are images of heroes performing majestic feats, arouse admiration and a desire to imitate them. These are. Achilles. Patroclus. Hector from Homer's Iliad, heroes of myths. Prometheus,. Hercules. Perseiracles,. Perseus.

Italian philosopher. D. Vico at work "Fundamentals" new science on the general nature of nations" wrote that heroism is characteristic only of the initial state of human development - the "age of heroes." In his opinion, every nation goes through three stages - theocratic, aristocratic and democratic. The first stage corresponds to the "age of the gods", this is the period when people connect their history with mythology, imagining that they are controlled by gods. The third stage is the “age of people.” Between the “age of the gods” and the “age of people” is the “age of heroes” who reign in aristocratic republics. Vico believed that these heroes are rude. , wild, uncultured, cruel, with unlimited passions, the heroes are rude, wild, uncultured, cruel, with unlimited passions.

According to opinion. According to Hegel, heroism provides for the free self-determination of the individual and is not subject to laws. The hero performs national tasks as his own. Hegel believed that heroic activity is inherent in people who live in the “age of heroes,” i.e. in the pre-state period. When the state achieves significant development, there sets in, in his words, a “prosaically ordered reality,” “each individual receives only a certain and limited part in the work of the whole,” and “the state as a whole cannot be trusted to arbitrariness, strength, masculinity, courage, and understanding.” individual personality, goodness, and the general public."

Hegel is right that the "age of heroes" was a historical stage in the development of nation-states when heroism could be discovered directly and freely. But with the emergence of states, heroism, contrary to the assertion. GHS then does not disappear, but changes its character, becomes conscious and morally responsible. Yes, Count. Roland "Songs of Roland" dies for the freedom of his native. France. However, the state can be not only a progressive, but also a reactionary force that prevents national development, hence the need for anti-state activities of progressive people directed against the outdated government. This fight requires significant heroic reinforcements of heroic zusil.

Since the era. Renaissance, national-historical heroism is closely connected with the formation of feudal states, and subsequently - bourgeois nations

In the sociology of the 20th century there are two opposing trends: one is the mystification of the heroic personality, the second excludes the possibility of a heroic personality in modern society. Englishman. Raglen wrote that heroes are a product of social myths. According to the American sociologist. Daniela. Boorstin, today the hero turns into a celebrity, which is the antipode of the hero.

Each era is characterized by its own type of heroism: either a liberating impulse, or self-sacrifice, or simply sacrifice in the name of universal human values. The heroic can manifest itself through the beautiful, the sublime, the tragic and the comic.

Pathos of drama

Like heroism, drama is generated by the contradictions of life. Drama arises when the high aspirations of people, and sometimes even life, are threatened with defeat or death. Dramatic events and situations can be generally natural and random, but only the former are the themes of works. Hegel noted that art is interested primarily in the socio-historical characteristics of the lives of the depicted individuals.

When people get serious political struggle, become victims of repression, consciously prepare for wars of liberation, a deep drama of people’s actions and experiences arises. The writer can sympathize with the characters who find themselves in a dramatic situation; such drama is ideologically affirming pathos. He can also condemn the characters responsible for causing the dramatic situation. In tragedy. Aeschylus' "Persians" described defeating the Persian fleet in a war of conquest against the Greeks. For. Aeschylus and Ancient. In Greece, the Persians' experience of dramatic events is an act of condemnation of the enemy who encroached on the freedom of the Greeks. The pathos of drama. Pron iknute "The Lay of Igor's Regiment" Using an example. Igor, the author of the work shows what sad consequences the princely civil strife leads to.

In the story. M. Kotsyubinsky "Fata morgana", in the novel. Balzac's "Père. Goriot" drama arises as a result of social inequality. The drama of events and experiences can have an ideologically affirming character. This kind of drama characterizes the "Song of Fr. Roland", which depicts the struggle of the Frankish troops. Charles V with the Saracens and death. Roland and. Oliver v. Ronsylvanian Gorges by Oliver V. Ronsilvan Gorge.

Personal relationships between people are often characterized by drama. The heroine of the novel. L. Tolstoy's "Anna. Karenina", who did not experience happiness in family life, first recognized him with. Vronsky, left her husband, broke with the hypocritical world, took upon herself the full burden of class oppression, but could not stand it and committed suicide.

Sentimentality

Sentimentality as pathos must be distinguished from sentimentalism as a trend. Theorist of German sentimentalism. F. Schiller in the article

“On Naive and Sentimental Poetry” (1796) named the Roman poet as the founder of sentimental poetry. Horace, extols in his own. Tibur "calm luxury" F. Schiller calls. Horace's post "Oswiche enoi and the corrupted era" Schiller wrote that sentimentality arose when naive life with its moral integrity and purity became a thing of the past or was relegated to the periphery social relations. For the emergence of a sentimental worldview, it was necessary that dissatisfaction with its shortcomings should appear in society and that progressive forces would find pleasure in the pursuit of a morally pure and civil life, leaving a past life, like leaving the past.

G. Pospelov believes that talking about the sentimental pathos of the works. Horace,"Bucolics" of Virgil, idylls. Theocritus, stories. The foal "Daphnis and Chloe" does not stand because they do not have the "emotional reflection of the people themselves and even more so of their authors." He finds the first glimpses of sentimentality in the works of the Provençal troubadours (12th century). The pathos of sentimentality was clearly manifested in XVIII literature century her ger. OEM was a simple, modest, sincere person who retained the vestiges of patriarchy. This hero became the subject of artistic reflection, becoming the subject of artistic reflection.

The origins of sentimental feelings in Ukrainian literature reach the 17th-18th centuries, they originate in the Baroque era. Sentimentalist writers feel sympathy for heroes who cannot find harmony. Monet in real life They are far from socio-political conflicts, but close to nature, their sensitivity comes from the “heart” of the heroes. I. Kotlyarevsky ("Natalka. Poltavka"). G. Kvitki-Osnovyanenko. Eat. Combs ("Tchaikovsky") are characterized by unshakable moral convictions, the desire to overcome one's suffering, internal stoicism of one's suffering, internal stoicism.

On the formation of Ukrainian sentimentalism noticeable influence had a cordocentric character of Ukrainian philosophy"Unlike Western European philosophical tradition, where the “heart” never had an ontological aspect, notes. I. Limborsky, - it has been in Ukrainian thinkers since the time. G.. Skovoroda acts as both the source of all feelings and an instrument of knowledge, which should be unconditionally trusted and carefully trusted.”

In the textbook "Introduction to Literary Studies" ed. G. Pospelov has the following definition of sentimental pathos: “This is spiritual touching caused by the awareness of moral dignity in the characters of people who are socially humiliated or associated with an immoral, privileged environment.”

Conditions for the emergence of sentimental pathos also exist in literature XIX-XX centuries. A striking example is a story. F. Dostoevsky's "Poor People" is his hero, an official. Devushkin is poor, small man, who is known to be disrespected by employees for only copying papers. But he is proud that he honestly earns his bread, considers himself a respectable citizen, highly values his “ambition”, his reputation, and is ready to protect himself from humiliation in the form of humiliation.

The pathos of sentimentality is present in the works. Yu. Fedkovich ("Love is a disaster"). P. Grabovsky ("Seamstress")

The ability for emotional reflection contributed to the emergence of not only sentimentality, but also romance

Romance

Sentimentality is a reflection of tenderness, sadness, caused by past life with its simplicity, moral perfection of relationships and experiences. Romance is a reflective passion directed towards the sublime, towards the ideal. The word "romantic" (French romantique) first appeared in English poetry and criticism in mid-18th century in (Thomson, Collins) to determine the pathos of creativity.

Romance is most often associated with the idea of national independence, civil freedom, equality and brotherhood of peoples, this is an uplifting mood

O. Veselovsky called romantic writers enthusiasts. Romance is the enthusiasm of emotional aspirations and feelings. It appeared in the Middle Ages; works about legendary knights, l love lyrics. Petrarch, novel. Cervantes "Don Quixote", tragedy. Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet" Romantic pathos is present in the works of sentimentalists, romantics, realists, etc. Neo-romanticists and neo-romantics.

Yu. Kuznetsov defines romantic pathos as “a dreamy and elated mood, which is characterized by outbursts of feelings, a heightened experience of unusual events, the process of activity, opposed to everyday life”

Humor and satire

Humor (Latin humor - moisture) is a reflection of the funny, amusing in life phenomena and characters, a manifestation of an optimistic, cheerful attitude towards reality, triumph healthy strength over the backward ones, without promising ones. Humor can be soft, benevolent, sad, sarcastic, caustic, vulgar. “The object of humor,” according to the observation of Yu. Kuznetsova, “is not a whole phenomenon, object or person, but individual and flaws in generally positive phenomena that are inadequate to the specific situation of human actions toppings...

Humor, including the contradictions and contrasts of life, is created primarily by metaphor, and not by comparison, which makes it possible to reveal the sublime in a limited, petty fact, so in artistic expression it often takes on an optimistic rather than critical tone.

Humor is basically a manifestation of an optimistic, humanistic attitude towards reality, the triumph of healthy forces over the joyless, unpromising. According to opinion. Voltaire, satire should be biting and at the same time funny. The sting of satire is directed against socially significant ugly facts. The object of satire is socio-comic, dangerous for society and people, the object of humor is elementary comic. Laughter in satire and humor has a different tone, different levels of social and artistic understanding of life phenomena. Humorous and satirical tonality sometimes coexist in one work. Humor and satire can combine such types of comics as wit, irony, sarcasm, and methods such as pathos, pun, caricature, parody, joke, hyperbole.

The meaning of the word PAPHOS in the Dictionary of Literary Terms

PATHOS

- (from the Greek pathos - passion, feeling) - the writer’s emotional and evaluative attitude to the reality he depicts, the emotional mood of the work, which determines its overall tone. There are different types of P.: heroic, tragic, comic.

Dictionary of literary terms. 2012

Modern definition of the word "pathos"

Pathos is a way of behavior that is characterized by feigned pomposity, playing to the public. This definition is used by most young people when describing a pretentious person.

In fact, this word has a broader and deeper meaning. For example, what is pathos in literature?

Pathos in literature

Pathos (translated from Greek - passion, inspiration) is a rhetorical category that was developed by Aristotle. It is designed to convey sublime emotions, passionate, passionate and inspired. Pathos can easily be called the “soul of the work,” because it permeates it and accompanies it throughout the entire story. It influences the reader’s consciousness and shapes his attitude towards the main characters, forcing him to sympathize.

Types of pathos in literature

Works in literature are revealed differently thanks to different types pathos:

Heroic pathos affirms the majesty of the main character or an entire team, whose actions are aimed at achieving humanistic goals. Most often this is a struggle for the independence of one’s people, for their rights, for peace. We meet in such works as “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, “Taras Bulba” by N. Gogol. Tragic pathos depicts the deep and contradictory experiences of the heroes, the desire for a high ideal and the impossibility of achieving it (A. Blok’s poem “The Twelve”).
Dramatic pathos is distinguished by the absence of a person’s fundamental opposition to external circumstances; the characters’ experiences are individual and hidden within themselves (“Red and Black” by Stendhal, “Père Goriot” by Balzac).
Romantic pathos affirms man's desire for an emotionally universal ideal. For example, “Borodino” by Lermontov or “Aelita” by Tolstoy.
Sentimental pathos is close to romantic, but is limited to the family and everyday sphere of manifestation of the characters’ feelings (“Suffering young Werther"Goethe, "Mu-mu" by Turgenev).
Let us separately highlight what humanistic pathos is: it is the affirmation of the humanistic ideals of humanity, their elevation. We can meet it in such works as “The Iliad” by Homer, “The Knight in the Tiger’s Skin” by Rustaveli, “The Overcoat” by Gogol and many others. etc.

Closely related to the idea is pathos (Greek pathos - feeling, passion) - inspiration, a passionate experience of emotional upliftment caused by an idea or event. In pathos, thought and feeling form a single whole. Aristotle understood pathos as the passion that motivates one to write a work. By. Belinsky, pathos is “an idea - passion.” “From here,” notes A. Tkachenko, “the conceptual tautology originates: you define an idea through pathos, and pathos through an idea. The apogee of departure from the original essence of the concept of pathos can be considered the statement, according to which all types of pathos are created by contradictions of social characters, writers interpret them on the basis of ideological positions. These positions include the partisanship of the writers’ social thinking and are determined by the classism of their worldview.” Tkachenko believes that the authors of the textbook "Introduction to Literary Studies" edited. G. Pospelov, naming such types of pathos as heroic, dramatic, tragic, satirical, humorous, sentimental, romantic, does not respect the unity of other classification criteria. Dramatic, tragic, satirical are associated with genres, and sentimental and romantic are associated with literary trends. Pathos, in my opinion. A. Tkachenko, is excessive rhetorical theatricality. He suggests using the term “tonality.” A type of tonality is pathos. In addition to the pathetic tonality, there is a lyrical tonality with such subtypes as sentimentality, romance, humorists, melancholy; dramatic with tragic, satirical, sarcastic, sentimental, romantic subspecies; epic with subtypes: heroic, descriptive, fantastic; epic with subtypes: heroic, descriptive, fantastic.

Each type of tonality has its own shades. So, in lyrics, the tonality can be nostalgic, melancholic, mathematical. Positive emotions are associated with a major key. According to opinion. A. Tkachenko, pathos is more historical, deliberate than tonality.

Heroic pathos

The subject of heroic pathos is the heroism of reality itself - the activities of people who overcome the elements of nature, fight the reactionary forces of society, defending freedom and independence. Fatherland. The heroic occupies an important place in mythology. Ancient. Greece, where, along with the images of gods, there are images of heroes performing majestic feats, arouse admiration and a desire to imitate them. These are. Achilles. Patroclus. Hector from Homer's Iliad, heroes of myths. Prometheus,. Hercules. Perseiracles,. Perseus.

Italian philosopher. D. Vico in his work “Fundamentals of a new science about the general nature of nations” wrote that heroism is characteristic only of the initial state of human development - the “age of heroes.” In his opinion, every nation goes through three stages - theocratic, aristocratic and democratic. The first stage corresponds to the “age of the gods”, this is the period when people connect their history with mythology, imagining that they are ruled by gods. The third stage is the “age of people.” Between the “age of the gods” and the “age of people” is the “age of heroes” who reign in aristocratic republics. Vico believed that these heroes are rude, wild, uncultured, cruel, with unlimited passions. Heroes are rude, wild, uncultured, cruel, with unlimited passions.

Hegel is right that the "age of heroes" was a historical stage in the development of nation-states when heroism could be discovered directly and freely. But with the emergence of states, heroism, contrary to the assertion. GHS then does not disappear, but changes its character, becomes conscious and morally responsible. Yes, Count. Roland "Songs of Roland" dies for the freedom of his native. France. However, the state can be not only a progressive, but also a reactionary force that hinders national development, hence the need for anti-state activities of progressive people directed against the outdated government. This fight requires significant heroic reinforcements of heroic zusil.

Since the era. Renaissance, national-historical heroism is closely connected with the formation of feudal states, and subsequently - bourgeois nations

Pathos of drama

When people wage an intense political struggle, become victims of repression, and consciously prepare for wars of liberation, a deep drama of people’s actions and experiences arises. The writer can sympathize with the characters who find themselves in a dramatic situation; such drama is ideologically affirming pathos. He can also condemn the characters responsible for causing the dramatic situation. In tragedy. Aeschylus' "Persians" described defeating the Persian fleet in a war of conquest against the Greeks. For. Aeschylus and Ancient. In Greece, the Persians' experience of dramatic events is an act of condemnation of the enemy who encroached on the freedom of the Greeks. The pathos of drama. Pron iknute "The Lay of Igor's Regiment" Using an example. Igor, the author of the work shows what sad consequences the princely civil strife leads to.

Sentimentality

Sentimentality as pathos must be distinguished from sentimentalism as a trend. Theorist of German sentimentalism. F. Schiller in the article

“On Naive and Sentimental Poetry” (1796) named the Roman poet as the founder of sentimental poetry. Horace, extols in his own. Tibur "calm luxury" F. Schiller calls. Horace's post "Oswiche enoi and the corrupted era" Schiller wrote that sentimentality arose when naive life with its moral integrity and purity became a thing of the past or was relegated to the periphery of social relations. For the emergence of a sentimental worldview, it was necessary that dissatisfaction with its shortcomings should appear in society and that progressive forces would find pleasure in the pursuit of a morally pure and civil life, leaving a past life, like leaving the past.

G. Pospelov believes that talking about the sentimental pathos of the works. Horace,"Bucolics" of Virgil, idylls. Theocritus, stories. The foal "Daphnis and Chloe" does not stand because they do not have the "emotional reflection of the people themselves and even more so of their authors." He finds the first glimpses of sentimentality in the works of the Provençal troubadours (12th century). The pathos of sentimentality was clearly manifested in the literature of the 18th century. OEM was a simple, modest, sincere person who retained the vestiges of patriarchy. This hero became the subject of artistic reflection, becoming the subject of artistic reflection.

The origins of sentimental feelings in Ukrainian literature reach the 17th-18th centuries, they originate in the Baroque era. Sentimentalist writers feel sympathy for heroes who cannot find harmony. Monet in real life they are far from socio-political conflicts, but close to nature, their sensitivity comes from the “heart” of the heroes. I. Kotlyarevsky ("Natalka. Poltavka"). G. Kvitki-Osnovyanenko. Eat. Combs ("Tchaikovsky") are characterized by unshakable moral convictions, the desire to overcome one's suffering, internal stoicism of one's suffering, internal stoicism.

The formation of Ukrainian sentimentalism was significantly influenced by the cordocentric character of Ukrainian philosophy. “Unlike the Western European philosophical tradition, where the “heart” never had an ontological aspect,” notes I. Limborsky, “it has been in Ukrainian thinkers since the time of G. Skovoroda acts as both the source of all feelings and an instrument of knowledge, which should be unconditionally trusted and carefully trusted."

Conditions for the emergence of sentimental pathos also exist in the literature of the 19th and 20th centuries. A striking example is the story. F. Dostoevsky's "Poor People" is his hero, an official. Devushkin is a poor, little man who is known to be disrespected by the employees for only copying papers. But he is proud that he honestly earns his bread, considers himself a respectable citizen, highly values his “ambition”, his reputation, and is ready to protect himself from humiliation in the form of humiliation.

The pathos of sentimentality is present in the works. Yu. Fedkovich ("Love is a disaster"). P. Grabovsky ("Seamstress")

The ability for emotional reflection contributed to the emergence of not only sentimentality, but also romance

Romance

Sentimentality is a reflection of tenderness, emotion, caused by a past life with its simplicity, moral perfection of relationships and experiences. Romance is a reflective passion directed towards the sublime, towards the ideal. The word “romantic” (French romantique) first appeared in English poetry and criticism in the mid-18th century (Thomson, Collins) to define the pathos of creativity.

Romance is most often associated with the idea of national independence, civil freedom, equality and brotherhood of peoples, this is an uplifting mood

O. Veselovsky called romantic writers enthusiasts. Romance is the enthusiasm of emotional aspirations and feelings. It appeared in the Middle Ages and permeates works about legendary knights and love lyrics. Petrarch, novel. Cervantes "Don Quixote", tragedy. Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet" Romantic pathos is present in the works of sentimentalists, romantics, realists, etc. Neo-romanticists and neo-romantics.

Humor and satire

Humor (Latin humor - moisture) is a reflection of the funny, amusing in life phenomena and characters, a manifestation of an optimistic, cheerful attitude towards reality, the triumph of healthy forces over backward, without promising ones. Humor can be soft, benevolent, sad, sarcastic, caustic, vulgar. “The object of humor,” according to the observation of Yu. Kuznetsova, “is not a whole phenomenon, object or person, but individual and flaws in generally positive phenomena that are inadequate to the specific situation of human actions toppings...

Closely related to the idea is pathos (Greek Pathos - feeling, passion) - inspiration, a passionate experience of emotional upliftment caused by an idea or event. In pathos, thought and feeling form a single whole. Aristotle understood pathos as the passion that motivates one to write a work. According to Belinsky, pathos is “idea - passion.” “From here,” notes A. Tkachenko, “conceptual tautology originates: an idea is defined through pathos, and pathos through an idea. The apogee of departure from the primary essence of the concept of pathos can be considered the statement according to which all types of pathos are created by the contradictions of social characters that writers are interpreted on the basis of ideological positions. These positions include the partisanship of the social thinking of writers and their worldviews conditioned by the classism." A. Tkachenko believes that the authors of the textbook “Introduction to Literary Studies” edited by G. Pospelov, naming such types of pathos as heroic, dramatic, tragic, satirical, humorous, sentimental, romantic, do not comply with uniform classification criteria. Dramatic, tragic, satirical are associated with genres, and sentimental and romantic - with literary trends. Pathos, according to A. Tkachenko, is excessive rhetoric and theatricality. He suggests using the term "tonality". The type of tonality is pathetic. In addition to pathetic tonality, there is lyrical tonality with such subtypes as sentimentality, romance, humor, melancholy; dramatic with tragic, satirical, sarcastic, sentimental, romantic subspecies; epic with subtypes: heroic, descriptive, fantastic.

Each type of tonality has its own shades. So, in lyrics the tonality can be nostalgic, melancholic, sad. Positive emotions are associated with a major key. According to A. Tkachenko, pathos is more rhetorical and deliberate than tonality.

Heroic pathos

The subject of heroic pathos is the heroism of reality itself - the activities of people who overcome the elements of nature, fight the reactionary forces of society, defend the freedom and independence of the Fatherland. The heroic occupies an important place in the mythology of Ancient Greece, where, along with the images of gods, there are images of heroes who carry out majestic feats that evoke admiration and a desire to imitate them. Such are Achilles, Patroclus, Hector from Homer’s Iliad, the heroes of myths Prometheus, Hercules, Perseus.

The Italian philosopher D. Vico in his work “Fundamentals of a new science about the general nature of nations” wrote that heroism is characteristic only of the initial state of human development - the “age of heroes”. In his opinion, every nation goes through three stages - theocratic, aristocratic and democratic. The first The stage corresponds to the “age of the gods”, this is the period when people connect their history with mythology, imagining that they are controlled by the gods. The third stage is the “age of people” Between the “age of the gods” and the “age of people” there is the “age of heroes”. reign in aristocratic republics. Vico believed that these heroes were rude, wild, uncultured, cruel, with unlimited passions.

According to Hegel, heroism provides for the free self-determination of the individual and is not subject to laws. The hero performs national tasks as his own. Hegel believed that heroic activity is inherent in people who live in the “age of heroes,” that is, in the pre-state period. When the state achieves significant development, a “prosaically ordered reality” sets in, “each individual receives only a certain and limited part in the work of the whole” and “the state as a whole ... cannot be entrusted to arbitrariness, force, courage, bravery and understanding of the individual."

Hegel was right that the "age of heroes" was a historical stage in the development of nation-states when heroism could be discovered directly and freely. But with the emergence of states, heroism, contrary to the statement of Gssl, does not disappear, but changes its character, becomes conscious and morally responsible. Thus, Count Roland “Songs of Roland” dies for the freedom of his native France. However, the state can be not only a progressive, but also a reactionary force that hinders national development, hence the need for anti-state activities of progressive people directed against the outdated government. This fight requires significant heroic efforts.

Since the Renaissance, national-historical heroism is closely connected with the formation of feudal states, and subsequently - bourgeois nations.

In the sociology of the 20th century there are two opposing trends: one consists of the mystification of the heroic personality, the second rejects the possibility of a heroic personality in modern society. The Englishman Raglen wrote that heroes are a product of social myths. According to American sociologist Danielle Boorstin, today the hero is turning into a celebrity, who is the antipode of the hero.

Pathos of drama

Like heroism, drama is generated by the contradictions of life. Drama arises when the high aspirations of people, and sometimes life, are threatened by defeat or death. Dramatic events and situations can be socially natural and random, but only the former are the themes of works. Hegel noted that art is interested primarily in the socio-historical characteristics of the lives of the depicted individuals.

When people wage an intense political struggle, become victims of repression, and consciously prepare for wars of liberation, a deep drama of people’s actions and experiences arises. A writer can sympathize with characters who find themselves in a dramatic situation; such drama is ideologically affirming pathos. He can also condemn the characters responsible for causing the dramatic situation. Aeschylus's tragedy "The Persians" depicts the defeat of the Persian fleet in the war of conquest against the Greeks. For Aeschylus and Ancient Greece, the Persians' experience of dramatic events was an act of condemnation of the enemy who had encroached on the freedom of the Greeks. The Tale of Igor's Campaign is imbued with the pathos of drama. Using the example of Igor, the author of the work shows what sad consequences princely feuds lead to.

In M. Kotsyubinsky’s story “Fata morgana” and in Balzac’s novel “Père Goriot,” drama arises as a result of social inequality. The drama of events and experiences can have an ideologically affirming character. Such drama characterizes the “Song of Roland,” which depicts the struggle of the Frankish troops of Charles V with the Saracens and the death of Roland and Oliver in the Ronsylvania Gorge.

Personal relationships between people are often characterized by drama. The heroine of L. Tolstoy's novel "Anna Karenina", who did not experience happiness in her family life, first recognized him with Vronsky, left her husband, broke with the hypocritical world, took upon herself the entire burden of class superiority, but could not stand it and committed suicide.

Sentimentality

Sentimentality as pathos must be distinguished from sentimentalism as a trend. The theorist of German sentimentalism F. Schiller in the article

“On Naive and Sentimental Poetry” (1796) named the Roman poet Horace as the founder of sentimental poetry, extolling “calm luxury” in his Tibur. F. Schiller calls Horace a post of "an enlightened and corrupted era." Schiller wrote that sentimentality arose when naive life with its moral integrity and purity became a thing of the past or was relegated to the periphery of social relations. For a sentimental worldview to arise, it was necessary that society should become dissatisfied with its shortcomings and that its progressive forces should find pleasure in the pursuit of a morally pure and integral life, which is becoming a thing of the past.

G. Pospelov believes that it is not worth talking about the sentimental pathos of the works of Horace, the “bucolic” of Virgil, the idylls of Theocritus, the story of the Foal “Daphnis and Chloe”, because in them there is no “emotional reflection of the characters themselves and, even more so, of their authors.” He finds the first glimpses of sentimentality in the works of the Provençal troubadours (12th century). The pathos of sentimentality was clearly manifested in the literature of the 18th century. her hero was a simple, modest, sincere man who retained the vestiges of patriarchy. This hero became the subject of artistic reflection.

The origins of sentimental feelings in Ukrainian literature reach the 17th-18th centuries. They originate in the Baroque era. Sentimentalist writers are imbued with sympathy for heroes who cannot find harmony in real life. They are far from socio-political conflicts, but close to nature, their sensitivity comes from the “heart”. The heroes of I. Kotlyarevsky ("Natalka Poltavka"), G. Kvitka-Osnovyanenko, E. Grebenka ("Tchaikovsky") are characterized by unshakable moral convictions, the desire to overcome their suffering, and inner stoicism.

The formation of Ukrainian sentimentalism was significantly influenced by the cordocentric nature of Ukrainian philosophy. “Unlike the Western European philosophical tradition, where the “heart” never had an ontological aspect,” notes I. Limborsky, “in Ukrainian thinkers, since the time of G. Skovoroda, it has been both the source of all feelings and an instrument of knowledge that should be unconditionally trusted” .

In the textbook “Introduction to Literary Studies,” ed. G. Pospelov has the following definition of sentimental pathos: “This is spiritual touching caused by the awareness of moral dignity in the characters of people who are socially humiliated or associated with an immoral, privileged environment.”

Conditions for the emergence of sentimental pathos also exist in the literature of the 19th and 20th centuries. A striking example is Dostoevsky's story "Poor People". its hero, the official Devushkin, is a poor, small man who is despised by his employees for only copying papers. But he is proud that he earns a piece of bread, considers himself a respectable citizen, highly values his “ambitions”, his reputation, and is ready to protect himself from humiliation.

The pathos of sentimentality in the works of Yu. Fedkovich ("Lyuba-perniciousness"), P. Grabovsky ("Seamstress").

The ability for emotional reflection contributed to the emergence of not only sentimentality, but also romance.

Romance

Sentimentality is a reflection of tenderness, touch, caused by a past life with its simplicity, moral perfection of relationships and experiences. Romance is a reflective passion directed towards the sublime, towards the ideal. The word “romantic” (French Romantique) first appeared in English poetry and criticism in the mid-18th century. (Thomson, Collins) to determine the pathos of creativity.

Romance is most often associated with the idea of national independence, civil freedom, equality and brotherhood of peoples; it is an elevated mood.

A. Veselovsky called romantic writers enthusiasts. Romance is the enthusiasm of emotional longings and feelings. It appeared in the Middle Ages, it permeates works about legendary knights, the love lyrics of Petrarch, Cervantes’s novel “Don Quixote,” and Shakespeare’s tragedy “Romeo and Juliet.” Romantic pathos is present in the works of sentimentalists, romantics, realists and neo-romantics.

Yu. Kuznetsov defines romantic pathos as “a dreamy and sublime mood, which is characterized by outbursts of feelings, a heightened experience of unusual events, the process of activity, contrasted with everyday life.”

Humor and satire

Humor (lat. Humor - moisture) is a reflection of the funny, amusing in life phenomena and characters, a manifestation of an optimistic, cheerful attitude towards reality, the triumph of healthy forces over backward, unpromising ones. Humor can be soft, friendly, sad, sarcastic, picky, vulgar. “The object of humor,” according to the observation of Yu. Kuznetsov, “is not a holistic phenomenon, an object or a person, but some errors in generally positive phenomena, human actions that are inadequate to a specific situation...

Humor is basically a manifestation of an optimistic, humanistic attitude towards reality, the triumph of healthy forces over the joyless, unpromising. According to Voltaire, satire should be biting and funny at the same time. The sting of satire is directed against socially significant ugly facts. The object of satire is socio-comic, dangerous for society and people, the object of humor is elementary comic. Laughter in satire and humor has a different tone, different levels social and artistic understanding of life phenomena. Humorous and satirical tonality sometimes coexist in one work. Humor and satire can combine such types of comics as wit, irony, sarcasm, and methods such as pathos, pun, caricature, parody, joke, hyperbole.

What is pathos in literature. Pathos as a dominant feature of a work of art

The meaning of the word PAPHOS in the Dictionary of Literary Terms

See also interpretations, synonyms, meanings of the word and what PAPHOS is in Russian in dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books:

Modern definition of the word "pathos"

Pathos in literature

Types of pathos in literature