What are methods of cognition? Methods of cognition

At the empirical level, we are dealing only with the phenomenon of an object, that is, with what lies on the surface, and the theoretical level is tied to the essence. Therefore, the goal of theoretical knowledge is to discover the law, the patterns of the subject being studied. And the law is not just general, repeating necessary connections, but essential ones.

The goals of theoretical knowledge correspond to the necessary means of knowledge, which, first of all, include explanation. If the description answers the questions: “what”, “how”, then the explanation answers the question “why?” Here is one of the the most important criteria differences between description and explanation. We cannot agree with the statement that a scientist more often asks the question “how?” rather than the question “why?”. It all depends on what level of knowledge the scientist is at. Genuine developed science involves solving the question “why?” associated with finding a pattern.

Recently, great interest in scientific knowledge has been aroused by the problem of understanding, which, along with explanation, has always had great importance for science.

Methods of theoretical knowledge include: idealization, formalization, axiomatic method, hypothetico-deductive, historical and logical, thought experiment,

Idealization is a type of abstraction that involves the mental reconstruction of an object by abstracting from some of its properties or supplementing them. Being generalized images, abstractions are performed on a system of models. Some are performed on material models. They are called material. Others are implemented on ideal models, they are called ideal.

The presence of idealizations in cognition serves as an indicator of the development of branches of knowledge and corresponds to the theoretical stage of the functioning of thought. Since a theory is a set of idealizations, and with the introduction of idealizations it is inevitable to highlight only some features and factors and ignore everything else that is part of the actual whole, the question arises about the degree of legitimacy of idealization: what are the limits, boundaries of permissible idealization of features in the hope of obtaining adequate results. At certain points, idealizations can come into sharp conflict with reality, especially when it relates to the fundamental assumptions of theories.

Idealization represents a type of thought experiment consisting of the following stages:

1) highlighting in a natural situation a set of parameters that are fundamental from the standpoint of analysis (relations of property, power, etc.) against the background of neglect of other features of the subject;

2) construction of the selected features as invariant, representative for a certain class of phenomena (relations of property, power, etc. as structure-forming factors connecting society into a single whole);

3) operation of passage to the limit. By discarding the “disturbing influence of conditions on the selected relations, a transition is made to the limiting case, that is, to the idealized object itself - “property” as the basis of a socio-economic formation, “power” as the basis of a socio-economic formation, etc.

Idealization is expressed not only in the adoption of a number of assumptions when formulating theoretical laws, but also in the procedure for constructing idealized objects.

An example of such an idealized object is a “material point”, a concept widely used in classical mechanics, an “incompressible fluid” studied in hydrodynamics, etc.

It is clear that idealized objects do not have real referents, that these are some constructs of theoretical thinking. The question arises: what is the point of these fictitious objects?

The fact is that the construction of idealized objects is a way of formulating idealized assumptions and a method of identifying in “pure form” certain dependencies expressed in theoretical laws. So, if a real body moves under the influence of force. applied to its center of gravity, then the movement of this center does not depend either on the geometric shape of the body or on the distribution of mass in the body. but only from the total amount of mass. The center of gravity moves as if all the mass were concentrated in it, i.e. similar to the idealized object “material point”. By identifying, with the help of an idealized object, the dependencies that exist in the case of the movement of bodies under the influence of a force applied to the center of gravity, we obtain the key to uncovering the entire complex system of dependencies that exist in various cases of real mechanical movements.

What is the nature of those dependencies that are formulated in the theory on the basis of a number of idealizing assumptions? Should they be considered simply a subjective “simplification” and “schematization” of a real empirical situation?

Apparently, idealization cannot be reduced to a “simplification” of what is given in experience. Through idealization, one not only abstracts from certain data in the experience of factors, but in a number of cases formulates assumptions that cannot be realized in experience.

Therefore, idealization can serve to identify essential, objectively real dependencies

Formalization is a set of cognitive operations that make it possible to transform a meaningfully constructed theory into a system of materialized objects of a certain type (symbols). The purpose of any formalization is the construction and expression of a knowledge system. But a formalized system can fulfill its task only if its elements and relationships can be meaningfully interpreted. In order to understand the rules of formalized operations, we must go beyond the boundaries of a given formal system, since no system can be completely formalized. There is always some unformalized remainder that must be formalized in another system, and so on, until we stop to use the unformalized rules. We must remember that formalized systems are always built in relation to some content, and only then abstracted from it. Formalization is not an end in itself, but a means of building a knowledge system. Formalization makes it possible to generalize the formal structure of theories (or their parts) related to different subject areas, and thereby save efforts aimed at developing the logical structure of each separately. Formalization is the basis for the widespread use of machine technology.

Axiomatic method – became widespread in connection with the development of logical and mathematical sciences and acts as one of forms of deductive method. An axiom is understood as the initial principles or premises from which all other statements of a theoretical system must be deduced in a purely logical way, through evidence.

Hypothetico-deductive method used mainly in the so-called empirical sciences: physics, chemistry, biology, etc.

This method has been used in science since the 17th century. But it became the object of methodological analysis only in the middle of the 20th century. Interestingly, its application contradicted the ideal of empirical science, which should be built “from the bottom up”: from empirical data to theoretical generalizations. Here the research moves from general theory to individual facts. Research begins with the formulation of hypotheses, from which statements are derived about the empirical facts that must be observed if the original hypothesis is true. Certification of the truth of the initial hypothesis is possible by two methods: verification and falsification.

Verification method was proposed by R. Carnap (1891-1970). The essence of the method is to create the possibility of empirical verification of theoretical constructs of a high level of abstraction that do not allow their direct comparison with facts. To do this, a series of consequences are derived from the hypothesis being tested, with a level of abstraction lowered until it comes to statements about that. What facts must be directly observed if the theoretical assumptions are correct. These statements should be compared with observed facts. Compliance with the facts will directly indicate the truth of the empirically verifiable consequence and indirectly confirm the truth of the original hypothesis from which this consequence was logically deduced.

However, empirical confirmation of lower-level hypotheses cannot guarantee the truth of the original hypothesis. No matter how many investigations are checked for compliance with the facts, the possibility always remains. That the next investigation will diverge from them. Consequently, an increase in the number of matches only leads to an increase in the probability that the original hypothesis is true, without making this truth absolutely certain.

Falsification method, proposed by K. Popper (1902-1994), was supposed to overcome this uncertainty about the truth of the original hypothesis. The beginning of the falsification procedure was the same as during verification: putting forward a hypothesis and deriving from it a number of consequences of a lower level of abstraction. Only the consequences should have concerned not those facts that should be observed provided that the original hypothesis is true, but those that, if this hypothesis is true, should in no case be observed. The research unfolded in the direction opposite to verification. The scientist had to look for facts that did not confirm, but disproved his assumptions. And so far such facts have not been discovered. The original hypothesis could be considered true.

Historical method involves tracing the history of an object in all its completeness and diversity, generalizing empirical material and establishing a general historical pattern on this basis. But this pattern can be identified without directly addressing real story, but by studying the process at the highest stage of its development, which is the essence logical method.

Historical and logical methods mutually complement each other, which allows us to move from the structure of the become object to the laws of its development and, conversely, from the history of development - to the structure of the become object. That is, when studying development, we turn to the present in order to better understand the past. When knowing the present characteristics of an object, we turn to its past in order to better know the present. Questions “what”, “where”, “when”, “under what conditions”, etc., clearly outline the facts and give them the property of concreteness. Specification of facts is extremely necessary; it is an antidote to manipulation and falsification of facts.

Modern science knows several types modeling. Subject modeling is the use of models that reproduce certain geometric, physical, dynamic and functional characteristics of the prototype.

Mental simulation is the use of various mental representations in the form of imaginary models. Sign (symbolic) modeling uses diagrams, drawings, and formulas as models. They reflect some properties of the original in a symbolic form. A type of sign modeling is mathematical modeling, carried out by means of mathematics and logic. The language of mathematics allows you to express any properties of objects and phenomena, describe their functioning or interaction with other objects using a system of equations. Mathematical modeling is often combined with subject modeling.

Computer modelling has become widespread recently. In this case, the computer is both a means and an object of experimental research, replacing the original. The model is a computer program.

Modeling is about analogy. This method is based on the significant similarity of the original object and its model. Modeling should be treated with the same caution as analogy, and the limits and boundaries of simplifications permissible in modeling should be strictly indicated.

Under systematic approach in a broad sense, they understand a research method in which the objects and phenomena of interest to us are considered as parts or elements of a certain holistic formation. These parts and elements, interacting with each other, form new properties of the integral formation (system), which are absent in each of them separately. Thus, the world appears to us as a collection of systems of different levels, located in a hierarchy.

System - this is an internal (or external) ordered set of interconnected elements, manifesting itself as something unified in relation to other objects or external conditions.

Concept "element" means the minimum, then indivisible component within the system. In all systems, the connection between elements is more stable, orderly and necessary than the connection of each of the elements with environment. An element is such only within the framework of a given system; in other respects, it itself can represent a complex system. The set of connections between elements forms structure of the system.

Considering the structure of the system, the following components can be distinguished: subsystems and elements. Subsystems are large parts of systems that have significant independence. The difference between subsystems and elements is conditional.

Within systematic approach a general systems theory was created, which formulated principles common to a wide variety of fields of knowledge. It begins with the classification of systems and is given on several grounds.

Depending on the structure of the system, they are divided into: discrete, rigid, centralized.

Discrete systems consist of elements similar to each other, not directly related to each other, but united only by a common relationship to the environment, so the loss of several elements does not damage the integrity of the system.

Rigid systems are characterized by increased organization, so the removal of even one element leads to the death of the entire system.

Centralized systems have one main link, which, being at the center of the system, connects and controls all other elements.

In the 70s of the twentieth century there appeared synergetics , which, according to the definition of its creator G. Haken, is engaged in the study of systems consisting of many subsystems of very different nature. The main idea of ​​synergetics is the idea of ​​the fundamental possibility of the spontaneous emergence of order and organization from disorder and chaos as a result of the process of self-organization. This occurs when positive feedback occurs between the system and the environment. That is, we are talking about the fact that under the influence of the environment, useful changes arise and accumulate in the system, which can lead to a radical change in the system, turning it into a more complex and highly organized one.

Synergetics claims to discover a certain universal mechanism with the help of which self-organization is carried out in systems of living and inanimate nature. However, the object of synergetics can only be systems that have a number of features: openness, nonequilibrium, nonlinearity, dissipativity. An open system exchanges matter, energy, and information with the environment. G. Haken believes that the processing of energy received by a system at the microscopic level goes through a number of stages, which ultimately leads to orderliness at the macroscopic level. Under changing conditions, the same system can demonstrate different methods of self-organization. And in highly nonequilibrium conditions, systems begin to perceive those factors that under normal conditions were indifferent to the system.

Systems emerge from a critical state of significant nonequilibrium in the form of a jump. A leap is an extremely nonlinear process in which even small changes in the control parameters of the system cause its transition to a new quality.

Dissipativity– this is a special dynamic state of the system, when, due to processes occurring with the elements of a nonequilibrium system, qualitatively new properties and processes appear at the level of the entire system. During their development, dissipative systems go through two stages:

1) A period of smooth evolutionary development, with well-predictable linear changes, ultimately leading the system to some unstable critical state.

2) A leap that transfers the system to a new stable state with a higher degree of complexity and organization.

The critical value of the system parameters at which an ambiguous transition to a new state is possible is called the point bifurcations. The discovery of the phenomenon of bifurcation made it possible, according to I. Prigogine, to introduce an element of the historical approach into physics. During the process of self-organization, the unidirectionality of time is clearly revealed. Classical thermodynamics proved the irreversibility of time using the second law of thermodynamics. I. Prigogine’s nonequilibrium thermodynamics uses the following argument: the jump process cannot be reversed. After the system passes through the bifurcation point, it qualitatively is transformed.

Synergetic analysis of systems faces the need to study the nature of uncertainty. The problem of randomness is also relevant. No matter how long and carefully the study of systems is carried out, this does not lead to liberation from randomness. Randomness is understood in such a way that the properties and qualities of individual phenomena change their meanings independently and are not determined by a list of characteristics of other phenomena.

The statistical patterns necessary in the new strategy for studying self-organizing systems are formulated in the language of probability distributions and manifest themselves as laws of mass phenomena based on large numbers.

Synergetics arose on the basis of thermodynamics and radiophysics, but its ideas are interdisciplinary in nature.

Scientists of various specialties are well aware that non-logical factors (the talent and experience of the scientist, equipping laboratories with modern equipment, a creative atmosphere in the scientific team, etc.) are important in scientific creativity.

Intuition usually defined as a direct perception of the truth, comprehension of it without any reasoning or proof. Intuition is characterized by surprise, improbability, immediate evidence and unconsciousness of the path leading to it. The role of intuition in mathematics and logic is great. Intuition is essential in moral life, historical and humanitarian knowledge in general. Artistic knowledge It is generally impossible without intuition.

There are many definitions of intuition, but all have one thing in common - the direct nature of intuitive knowledge.

The forms of development of scientific knowledge include primarily just a problem, a hypothesis, a theory.

Problem– this is a question or an integral set of questions that necessarily arises in the process of scientific knowledge, the solution of which is of theoretical or practical interest. The entire course of development of human cognition can be represented as a process of transition from the formulation of problems to their solution, and then to the formulation of new problems.

Scientific knowledge begins with the formulation of a problem. It is often said that correctly posing a problem is already half of ensuring success in solving it. In the entire cycle of cognition - from the formulation of a problem to its resolution - the driving spring is ought in various forms, expressing the activity of the cognizing subject in his relation to the object. Ought is a subjective moment in the process of scientific research, but this subjective is an expression of the objective: human social needs for the practical transformation of the world. These needs are at the beginning and at the end of scientific research. They encourage us to pose and solve a scientific problem and determine ways for the practical implementation of scientific ideas.

Scientific problems are divided into the following types.

According to the methods used:

Programmable problems. This type of problem usually includes standard problems that arise on the basis of certain knowledge and are a natural result of the cognition process. To solve them, a specific model is used with the necessary adjustments for specific features.

Non-programmable problems. This type of problem includes non-standard problems. That is, problems for which there are no algorithms.

Intractable problems are problems for which there is no solution.

By the nature of the decision:

Routine problems. Problems of this type are solved using proven models and do not require a creative approach, since all procedures for solving such problems are known.

Selective problems. Problems of this type are solved within a certain framework of alternative selection of models and algorithms for their solution.

Adaptation problems. Problems of this type are solved by combining the use of a non-standard approach based on new ideas with proven models and algorithms for solving them.

Innovation problems. Problems of this type are solved by combining the use of a non-standard approach based on new ideas and the development of new models and algorithms for solving them.

By degree of formalization:

Well structured problems. These are problems in which the dependencies between the elements of a holistic set of problems that make up the problem can be given numerical values ​​or symbols. When solving problems of this type, quantitative methods are used.

Weakly structured problems. These are problems, as a rule, complex, differing primarily in the qualitative dependencies between the structural inter-element connections of the problem. However, they contain both qualitative and quantitative elements with the predominant composition of the former. In solving such problems, the possibility of building models is excluded. But not always. It all depends on the specifics of the particular problem and the suitability of a combination of quantitative and heuristic methods.

Unstructured (or qualitatively expressed) problems. In this type of problem, the quantitative dependencies between the structural interelement connections of the problem are completely unknown. Solving these problems involves the use of heuristic methods based on theoretical reasoning, logic, intuition, experience, etc.

There are also:

1. Explicit and implicit problems. Explicit ones contain maximum information about the problem itself, methods for studying it and possible results of its solution; implicit - a minimum of information about the solution to the problem and methods for its research.

2. Developed and undeveloped problems. Undeveloped problems are characterized by incompleteness and incompleteness, and therefore are sometimes called pre-problems.

Requirements for posing scientific problems:

The presence of a reasonable conclusion that the selected problem has not been solved in world science or the proposed solutions are unsatisfactory.

Analysis of previous experience in researching the identified problem to avoid duplication

A justification for the relevance of the problem to society in addition to a personal belief that it needs to be solved.

Identifying the main contradiction of the problem situation

Formulating the goals and objectives of the study

Problem Statement usually includes three parts:

1) A system of initial statements or a description of factual data.

2) Statement of the question – what needs to be found.

3) Methodological principle - a system of instructions for possible ways destruction.

Problem solving process

Familiarization with the problem.

Clarification of the problem.

Formulation of the problem.

Selection and determination of the amount of necessary information

Working formulation of the problem.

Developing options for possible solutions to the problem, generating ideas.

Finding a solution to the problem

Checking the correctness (truth) of the solution to the problem

Hypothesis

Hypothesis is a form of probable knowledge, it is a scientifically based assumption about the causes or natural connections of any phenomena of nature, society and thinking.

Scientifically based assumptions (hypotheses) must be distinguished from groundless fantasies in science.

Requirements for generating hypotheses.

Consistency: this means both logical consistency and factual consistency, i.e. a hypothesis must not contradict the facts it is intended to explain.

Principal verifiability. Science does not accept guesses that, in principle, cannot be verified and, therefore, substantiated or refuted.

The path of construction and confirmation hypotheses go through a number of stages:

1. Identification of a group of facts that do not fit into previous theories or hypotheses and must be explained by a new hypothesis.

2.Formulation of a hypothesis (or hypotheses), that is, assumptions that explain these facts.

3. Deriving from this hypothesis all the consequences arising from it.

4. Comparison of the consequences derived from the hypothesis with existing observations, experimental results, and scientific laws.

5. Transformation of a hypothesis into reliable knowledge or a scientific theory, if all the consequences derived from the hypothesis are confirmed and there are no contradictions with previously known laws of science.

Methods for confirming hypotheses.

1. Detection of an alleged object, phenomenon or property.

2. Drawing conclusions and checking them. In this case, a large role belongs to empirical facts.

These two methods are direct evidence of the truth of the hypotheses.

3. Indirect confirmation of hypotheses: all false hypotheses are refuted, after which a conclusion is made about the truth of the one remaining assumption. In this case, firstly, it is necessary to list all possible assumptions, and secondly, it is necessary to refute all false hypotheses.

Refutation of hypotheses is carried out by refuting (falsifying) the consequences arising from a given hypothesis. This is possible if, firstly, all or many of the necessary consequences are not discovered or, secondly, facts are discovered that contradict the derived consequences.

Theory.

Theory– a knowledge system that satisfies the requirements of consistency, logical consistency, simplicity and, which performs the functions of description, explanation and prediction, promotes the integration of knowledge.

A. Einstein noted that “the theory pursues two goals: 1. To cover, if possible, all phenomena and relationships (completeness). 2. To achieve this by taking as a basis as few logically mutually related logical concepts and arbitrarily established relationships between them (basic laws and axioms)

Analysis of the structure and development of a theory has a double meaning. Firstly, it serves as a prerequisite for understanding the laws of the movement of knowledge in general: after all, theory is a form of movement of thinking in which the synthesis of knowledge is carried out. Secondly, determining the epistemological essence and functions of the theory is necessary for understanding other forms of thinking: concepts, judgments, inferences.

In the methodology of science, the following main elements of the theory structure are distinguished:

1) fundamental concepts, principles, laws, equations, axioms;

2) idealized objects, abstractions of essential properties and connections of the objects being studied;

3) a set of certain rules and methods of evidence and explanation;

4) philosophical attitudes, sociocultural and value factors;

5) a set of laws and statements derived as consequences from the basic axioms.

The key element of the theory is law. Actually, theory can be defined as a system of laws that express the essence and deep connections of the object being studied. Law- this is an objective, essential, necessary, stable, that is, repeating, connection between the processes and phenomena of the world. Cognition of laws is a complex, contradictory process of reflecting reality. According to the degree of generality, laws are divided into universal, general and particular, and by the nature of the predictions arising from them - on dynamic and statistical. In dynamic type laws, predictions have a precisely defined, unambiguous character. Dynamic laws characterize the behavior of relatively isolated systems consisting of a small number of elements and in which it is possible to abstract from a number of factors.

In statistical laws, predictions are probabilistic in nature. This nature of predictions is due to the action of many random factors, and a statistical pattern arises as a result of the interaction of a large number of elements that make up a team, and therefore characterizes not so much the behavior of each element as the team as a whole.

It is usually believed that standard method The test of theories is experience. However, often a theory cannot be verified by direct experiment, and therefore is limited to the requirement of fundamental confirmability (verifiability). As K. Popper believed, fundamental falsifiability plays an important role in evaluating theories. The theory includes prohibitions, and this is what makes it testable.

In general, preference is given to the theory that:

1) informs new information;

2) is logically more strict;

3) has greater explanatory and predictive power;

4) can be verified by comparing predictions with observations.

The theory that best withstands competition with other theories is selected.

W. Heisenberg believed that a scientific theory should be consistent (in the formal logical sense), have simplicity, beauty, compactness, a specific (always limited) scope of its application, integrity and “final completeness.” But the strongest argument in favor of the correctness of the theory is its “multiple experimental confirmation.”

Scientific theory- an amazing achievement of the human mind. A scientist, relying on a small number of axioms, using experimental generalizations in the process of reasoning, uses logical rules to derive all kinds of empirical consequences. This is especially evident if the law is written in a mathematical form that connects the postulate with the necessary conditions for the existence of an “ideal object.” It is not surprising that, starting with Newton, not only competition, but also conflicts arose between theorists and experimenters. For example, I. Newton often corrected the data of observing astronomers, and this caused hostility. People who spent all their time observing and measuring could not understand the “ease” with which theorists sitting at their desks calculated and predicted the actual events that they had been hunting for so long and diligently.

In fact, the work of theoretical researchers was not so easy. I. Newton long years corrected his main work “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” and, of course, took into account the observations and measurements obtained by observational astronomers.

The method of science is the unity of analysis and synthesis. First, the scientist identifies in a complex phenomenon some logically initial “simple” axioms. And then the conditions under which the actual process takes place are identified. Finally, a quantitative relationship is revealed between the phenomenon occurring under “ideal” conditions and interfering factors. Thus, by decomposing the complex into the simple and mathematically adding the simple into the complex, science achieves accurate calculations and predictions.

The construction of a scientific theory goes through a number of stages. On the basis of empirical data, their classification, generalization, logical and mathematical processing are carried out. The theorist strives to divide empirical generalizations into basic and derivative ones, to build a logically interconnected system consisting of hypothetical and experimentally verifiable statements.

Functions of scientific theory:

Synthetic function is the combination of individual reliable knowledge into a single system.

Explanatory function – identifying the essence of the object under study, establishing causal, genetic, functional and other connections of this phenomenon and a number of conditions and factors.

Predictive or predictive function - a conclusion about the existence of objects unknown to science, their properties, connections between processes, etc.

Practical function. The purpose of any theory is to be translated into practice.

Methodological function – formulation on the basis of theory of methods, techniques, operations, methods of research work.

The article describes the main general scientific methods of cognition. We will consider each separately in detail in order to form a complete picture.

A little about the topic

Let's begin our consideration of general scientific methods of cognition with a simple classification. Note that it is not that extensive. The main milestone for this process is the fixation of two levels of human knowledge of information, namely theoretical and empirical. Based on this, absolutely all general scientific methods of cognition can be divided into three basic groups:

• theoretical knowledge;
• empirical and theoretical knowledge;
• empirical knowledge.

Let's consider everything in order, but let's start, perhaps, with empirical methods.

General scientific methods of empirical knowledge

To begin with, we note that the main point here is sensory cognition, which is most often visual. It is aimed at obtaining knowledge from the surrounding world with the help of certain material objects and devices. Many people mistakenly believe that observation is a passive process, but it is not. It is a purposeful activity that allows you to rely on a person’s sensory abilities and record certain properties of objects.

General scientific methods of empirical knowledge have three distinctive features:

• The first is a certain purposefulness, which can exist in the presence of hypotheses and initial assumptions.
• The second feature is consistency. It is understood that everything goes according to a clear plan, and according to it.
• The third feature is that observation or other empirical process is always active. In other words, the researcher also directly participates in knowledge, using his knowledge.

Description

General scientific methods of scientific knowledge include empirical description. Any observation is always described. Therefore, this method is a little isolated. It allows you to record certain information about objects in the surrounding world using artificial or natural language. The method of description is the empirical basis of all science. The main requirements for it are a complete, objective and scientific description.

It is divided into qualitative and quantitative. The latter uses the language of mathematics and various measurement methods. Qualitative description compares the data obtained with some generally accepted standard.

Experiment

General scientific methods of cognition include all empirical and theoretical ones. We are currently considering their first subspecies. The experiment is more difficult to describe, but it includes it. During the experiment, the researcher is directly and very actively involved in the process. This type of research has characteristic features:

• the experimenter can intervene at any time and influence the course of the study;
• the ability to reproduce the experiment as many times as necessary to obtain the result;
• the object can be observed in artificially created conditions for comprehensive study;
• the ability to explore something in its pure form, neglecting random or unnecessary factors.

Thus, we understand that an experiment is a method of empirical research that provides the most reliable information and allows scientists to intervene in the process itself.

Analysis and synthesis

Analysis is a method of general scientific knowledge, consisting of logical techniques of an empirical or theoretical nature that allow us to consider all the elements of the object under study and its properties. The analysis is carried out at an initial stage in order to have a basis for further research and relationships. There are three target forms of analysis:

• dividing the research object into parts with subsequent study of properties and characteristics;
• identifying a group of characteristic features and properties;
• division of objects according to their common characteristics and features.

The analysis ends with the fact that it becomes possible to reproduce the desired process and analyze it through logical synthesis, where the main goal is to reveal certain patterns.

Synthesis is a general scientific and special scientific method of cognition that can be used in almost any field, just like analysis. It consists of connecting objects into a single whole or system. This is not just a mechanical unification. It takes into account structural relationships and allows you to see causal mechanisms as if from the outside. The result of this method manifests itself in some forms of information summarization:

• creation of scientific concepts;
• formulation of laws or patterns;
• creation of concepts.

Very often, thanks to synthesis, an empirical theory can appear, which, for example, happened with the table of chemical elements by D.I. Mendeleev.

Methods of analysis and synthesis cannot be used separately, since they complement each other and are an integral part of a comprehensive study.

Induction

Induction is very often used as a general scientific method of studying law. It is based on the study of particular facts in order to arrive at a general conclusion or hypothesis. An important feature of the inductive method is that repeatability of certain characteristics is observed. Inductive inference concerns the general characteristics of the object of study that were discovered after examining many specific cases. This method is aimed at finding a unifying factor. Induction can be complete or incomplete. The first is based on knowledge of all subjects, and the second may not be so filled with information due to space-time restrictions.

There are three types of incomplete induction:

1. A simple listing of facts concerning a limited number of events. Valid until a refuting case is found.
2. Selection of facts from the general mass of information according to certain rules. Most often, this approach is used when conducting social media. surveys.
3. Study based on causal relationships within a certain phenomenon.

This simplest method conclusions, thanks to which many discoveries were made (the law of conservation of matter, the uncertainty principle). Induction stimulates thinking and interacts with different areas of knowledge.

Deduction

This method is based on the fact that there is a sufficient number of generalizing facts. Based on this, we can proceed to the study of particular aspects. This method was used by famous detectives such as Columbo and Sherlock Holmes. Unlike the previous one, the result here is not a deductive inference. As a result, a whole system can be obtained. Philosophical and general scientific methods of cognition are difficult to imagine without deduction, which is based on empirical theories and principles, hypotheses and axioms.

Induction and deduction are inextricably linked, as they complement each other. Both methods can be wrong. At the same time, deduction cannot provide absolutely new knowledge, but, nevertheless, the role of this method is very great, and it is constantly growing, especially in two directions. The first is that which is connected with the world inaccessible to human sensory perception (fleeting processes, microworld). The second is mathematical and logical theories that are derived through the method of deduction.

Abstraction

The next general scientific method of cognition is abstraction, which consists of a special way of thinking. In this case, the researcher deliberately distracts from a number of characteristics of the object under study in order to concentrate on its special properties. As a result, various abstractions appear. Thanks to this method, you can highlight the main thing. Mathematical abstraction involves abstraction from sensory characteristics such as taste, hardness or softness.

Classification method

General scientific methods of theoretical knowledge include classification. This is a method of scientific research that consists of dividing and distributing many objects into subclasses according to specific characteristics. The basis of classification is a logical chain.

There are three types of this method of cognition:

1. Artificial and natural classifications that depend on the degree of division. Essential classifications may carry or contain important information about an object. For example, give a table periodic elements. Irrelevant or artificial classifications provide insight into the essence of knowledge. For example, you can take the pointer in the library.
2. Content and formal classification. The first is the oriented selection of some order in the elements. The second is focused on revealing certain patterns.
3. Descriptive and essential classification. The first concerns the recording of the presence of a certain fact, and the second the disclosure of important characteristics of the object.

Modeling

General scientific and private methods of cognition are impossible without modeling. This is a complex method of cognition, which consists of studying a real object by creating its effective copy, which is called a model. It is important to remember that the model replaces the original only in those parameters that are necessary for cognition. Thus, all other unnecessary properties are simply excluded, since they are not relevant at a certain stage. It is thanks to this sorting of the model’s characteristics that it becomes convenient for research.

The general scientific method of scientific knowledge - modeling - consists of several stages:

1. Building a model. At this stage main goal is to create a complete and effective replacement that will reproduce the necessary parameters. This uses idealization, abstraction, simplification, etc.
2. Study. At this stage we receive necessary information. The study is carried out at very deep levels, taking into account all the smallest details. All this is necessary so that a specific problem can be solved using the model. The researcher can additionally use such general scientific methods of scientific knowledge as description, observation, etc.
3. Transferring the results obtained to the original itself. This means that the researcher, based on the modeling data, draws conclusions and makes a decision on the outcome of the study. If inconsistencies are found, the model is adjusted and new studies are carried out. Physical and mathematical models are simpler, since it is much easier to calculate adequacy and inconsistencies in them.

At the same time, a complex of general scientific methods of theoretical and empirical knowledge makes it possible to create various models. They can be material, that is, physical or social. Models can also be ideal, that is, mathematical. Due to the development of the theoretical level, physical modeling is becoming less and less popular. Note that mathematical modeling can be analog, abstract and simulation.

Abstract modeling is based on the possibility of describing a certain phenomenon or object using the language of scientific theory. Initially they give a very clear and detailed description, followed by an equally accurate mathematical model. Thus, a mathematical-logical complex is obtained. Analog modeling lies in the isomorphism of objects, that is, in their similarity. Thanks to this, similar objects with different physical basis. Simulation modeling involves simulating using a computer. certain properties or model characteristics.

Generalization

An important method of cognition is generalization. It directly affects all other methods. The generalization consists in identifying certain general properties, patterns and connections in a certain area. Moreover, all this happens by moving to a higher level of definition and abstraction. Generalization includes all of the above methods, but at the same time it leaves its own imprint and makes its own contribution to knowledge. Some researchers believe that this method can rightfully be considered a subtype of abstraction.

However, in reality this is not the case, because the generalization is much more global and comprehensive. At the same time, the cognitive task of these two methods also differs. The purpose of generalization is to move from a frequent or individual concept to a general conclusion. In this case, a new concept appears, and not just the result of inference.

Idealization

An important general scientific method of theoretical knowledge is idealization. This method is considered a subtype of abstraction. At the same time, the processes are extremely close to ideal. To do this, they have a minimum number of special properties that are necessary to solve a specific problem. There are no ideal objects, but there are their prototypes in the real world. This is why it is possible to create an ideal structure that will allow you to conduct a thought experiment. This method is characterized by two theoretical features, namely:

1. Introduction into the created object of such characteristics and properties that cannot exist in a real object.
2. Diverting attention from the real characteristics of a phenomenon or object.

For example, we note that Galileo understood the complexity of the natural process, and knew that to study it it was necessary to create a model.

Thought experiment

We have considered almost all general scientific methods of cognition. Philosophy most often uses this method as a thought experiment. It consists in a theoretical study of an object in the entirety of its properties and interactions. In a thought experiment, it is possible to establish conditions that cannot be established during practical experience. This allows us to identify new patterns. In this way the methods of Galileo and Einstein were discovered. It was enough for scientists to imagine something in their heads to understand the possible consequences and causes. It is generally impossible to imagine modern science without thought experiments.

Formalization

This is a research method that involves studying the content of an object using patterns and connections. During this method, any area of ​​​​knowledge, be it evidence, reasoning or searching for facts, is presented as a kind of formal system. Thanks to this, you can abstract from form and content in order to see a new subject area. In this case, it is possible to study structural patterns, while abstracting from qualitative indicators. The finished model can be transformed and changed, obtaining different content. Moreover, each time you can add new content to the object. The basis for formalization is abstraction, which is achieved through mathematics. For this purpose it is used private method mathematization.

Fields such as linguistics or logic also have characteristic features of formalization. How is it shown? In the use of a characteristic artificial language, which is very often called calculus. This is a certain system of studying certain areas of knowledge, which is established between specific areas of theoretical research. In mathematical logic this can be the calculus of classes, predicates, propositions, etc.

Axiomatization

It is a method of deductively constructing conclusions or theories in any branch of knowledge. Moreover, based on the choice of initial characteristics, which are called axioms, it is possible to logically deduce different provisions of the theory or knowledge. Axioms include exclusively basic or initial concepts that are accepted as truth without any kind of evidence. All other features already require specific arguments. An example is Euclid's geometry. All sciences built on the basis of axiomatization are deductive.

Hypothetico-deductive method

This method of general scientific knowledge consists in putting forward certain abstract and theoretical assumptions, that is, hypotheses. Used to explain causes and relationships in observed processes or phenomena. Such conclusions can very easily and conveniently be further revealed using deduction. That is, a hypothesis develops from an initial assumption, which is tested empirically over time, and then refined (detailed) and analyzed by the researcher.

Private scientific methods are a whole set of methods that are used for analysis and research in a particular science and taking into account it characteristic features. This includes research in biology, physics, chemistry, mechanics, etc.

Summing up the article, I would like to note that absolutely all of the above methods are actively used by scientists and researchers at different levels. At the same time, we must understand that absolutely all methods of scientific knowledge are very broad and relevant. Each of them is used most in a certain area. At the same time, sometimes scientists use whole complexes of various methods in order to obtain very accurate and comprehensive information.

Actually theoretical methods rely on rational cognition (concept, judgment, inference) and logical inference procedures. These methods include:

§ analysis- the process of mental or real division of an object, phenomenon into parts (signs, properties, relationships);

§ synthesis - combining the aspects of the subject identified during the analysis into a single whole;

§ classification- Union various objects into groups based on common features(classification of animals, plants, etc.);

§ abstraction - distraction in the process of cognition from some properties of an object for the purpose of in-depth study of one specific aspect of it (the result of abstraction is abstract concepts such as color, curvature, beauty, etc.);

§ formalization - display of knowledge in a sign, symbolic form (in mathematical formulas, chemical symbols, etc.);

§ analogy - inference about the similarity of objects in in a certain way on the basis of their similarity in a number of other respects;

§ modeling- creation and study of a substitute (model) of an object (for example, computer modeling of the human genome);

§ idealization- creation of concepts for objects that do not exist in reality, but have a prototype in it ( geometric point, ball, ideal gas);

§ deduction - movement from the general to the specific;

§ induction- movement from the particular (facts) to a general statement.

Theoretical methods require empirical facts. So, although induction itself is a theoretical logical operation, it still requires experimental verification of each particular fact, and therefore is based on empirical knowledge, and not on theoretical knowledge. Thus, theoretical and empirical methods exist in unity, complementing each other. All of the methods listed above are methods-techniques (specific rules, action algorithms).

Wider methods-approaches indicate only the direction and general way of solving problems. Method approaches can include many different techniques. These are the structural-functional method, the hermeneutic method, etc. The extremely general methods-approaches are the philosophical methods:

§ metaphysical- viewing an object askew, statically, out of connection with other objects;

§ dialectical- disclosure of the laws of development and change of things in their interrelation, internal inconsistency and unity.

Absolutization of one method as the only correct one is called dogmatics(for example, dialectical materialism in Soviet philosophy). An uncritical accumulation of various unrelated methods is called eclecticism.

16. Structure of empirical knowledge. Experiment and observation. The fact and problem of its theoretical load.

The empirical level has a rather complex systemic organization; in it it is possible to identify special layers of knowledge and, accordingly, the cognitive procedures that generate this knowledge. Let us first consider the internal structure of the empirical level. It is formed by at least two sublevels: a) direct observations and experiments, the result of which are observational data; b) cognitive procedures through which the transition from observational data to empirical dependencies and facts is carried out.

Let us consider in more detail what observation and experiment are.

1. Observation– purposeful study of objects, based mainly on data from the senses (sensation, perception, representation). In the course of observation, knowledge is obtained not only about the external aspects of the object of knowledge, but - as the ultimate goal - about its essential properties and relationships.

It should be noted that observation is not just passive contemplation of the objects and processes being studied. Scientific observation is active in nature and presupposes the preliminary organization of its objects, ensuring control over their behavior.

Observation can be direct or indirect through various instruments and technical devices. With the development of science, observation becomes more complex and indirect.

Basic requirements for scientific observation: unambiguous design; the presence of a system of methods and techniques; objectivity. That is, the possibility of control through either repeated observation or using other methods (for example, an experiment).

Observation is usually included as part of the experimental procedure.

During observation, the researcher is always guided by a specific idea, concept or hypothesis. He does not simply register any facts, but deliberately selects those that either confirm or refute his ideas. Interpretation of observations is also always carried out using certain theoretical principles.

2. Experiment – active and purposeful intervention in the course of the process being studied, a corresponding change in the object or its reproduction in specially created and controlled conditions.

Thus, in an experiment, an object is either reproduced artificially or placed in a certain way specified conditions that meet the goals of the study. During the experiment, the object being studied is isolated from side influences that obscure its essence, and is presented in its “pure form.” In this case, specific experimental conditions are not only set, but also controlled, modernized, reproduced and changed many times.

Thus, the experiment is carried out

Firstly, as the interaction of objects proceeding according to natural laws;

Secondly, as an artificial, human-organized action.

Every scientific experiment is always guided by some idea, concept, hypothesis. Experimental data is always “theoretically loaded” in one way or another – from its setup to its interpretation.

Main features of the experiment:

A more active (than during observation) attitude towards the object, up to its change and transformation;

Multiple reproducibility of the studied object at the request of the researcher;

The ability to detect properties of phenomena that are not observed in natural conditions;

The possibility of considering a phenomenon in its “pure form” by isolating it from circumstances that complicate and mask its course, or by changing, varying experimental conditions;

The ability to control the behavior of the research object and verify its results.

The main stages of the experiment: planning and construction (its purpose, type, means, methods of implementation, etc.), control, interpretation of results.

The structure of the experiment (that is, what and who is needed for it to take place): a) experimenters; b) the object of the experiment (that is, the phenomenon that is being influenced); c) a system of instruments and other scientific equipment; d) experimental methodology; e) a hypothesis (idea) that is subject to confirmation or refutation.

An experiment has two interrelated functions: experimental testing of hypotheses and theories, as well as the formation of new ones. scientific concepts. Depending on these functions, experiments are distinguished: research (search), testing (control), reproducing, isolating, and so on.

Based on the nature of objects, physical, chemical, biological, social and other experiments are distinguished.

Important V modern science has a decisive experiment, the purpose of which is to refute one and confirm the other of two (or more) competing concepts.

Let's talk briefly about other methods of empirical research.

3. Comparison- a cognitive operation that reveals the similarity or difference of objects (or stages of development of the same object), that is, their identity and differences, but it makes sense only in the aggregate of homogeneous objects that form a class. Comparison of objects in a class is carried out according to characteristics that are essential for this consideration. Moreover, objects compared on one basis may not be comparable on another.

4. Description– a cognitive operation consisting of recording the results of an experiment (observation or experiment) using certain notation systems accepted in science (schemes, graphs, drawings, tables, diagrams, etc.).

5.Measurement– a set of actions performed using certain means in order to find the numerical value of the measured quantity in accepted units of measurement.

17. Structure of theoretical knowledge. Theoretical models and laws. Scientific theory.

The theoretical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by the predominance of the rational element - theories, concepts, laws and other forms of thinking and mental operations. Theoretical knowledge reflects phenomena and processes from their universal internal connections and patterns, comprehended through rational processing of empirical knowledge data.

The most important task of theoretical knowledge is the achievement of objective truth in all its context and completeness of content.

At the theoretical stage, rational knowledge is predominant, which is most fully and adequately expressed in thinking. Thinking– an active process of generalized and indirect reflection of reality carried out during practice, ensuring the disclosure of its natural connections on the basis of sensory data and their expression in a system of abstractions (concepts, categories). Forms of thinking are ways of reflecting reality through interconnected abstractions, among which the initial ones are concepts, judgments and inferences. On their basis, more complex forms of rational knowledge are built, such as hypothesis, theory, and others.

Concept- a form of thinking that reflects the most general natural connections, essential aspects, signs of phenomena that are fixed in their definitions. Concepts must be flexible and mobile, interconnected, united in opposites, in order to correctly reflect the development of the objective world.

Judgment– a form of thinking that reflects individual things, phenomena, processes of reality, their properties, connections and relationships. This mental reflection, usually expressed by a declarative sentence, can be either true or false. Any properties and attributes of an object are expressed in the form of a judgment. Analogue of judgment - statement- a grammatically correct declarative sentence taken together with the meaning it expresses. The main types of statements are descriptive and evaluative.

Inference– a form of thinking (thought process) through which new knowledge is derived from previously established knowledge (usually from one or more judgments). Important conditions for achieving true inferential knowledge are not only the truth of premises (arguments, grounds), but also compliance with the rules of inference, avoidance of violations of the laws and principles of logic and dialectics.

Structural components theoretical knowledge:

- Problem- a form of theoretical knowledge, the content of which is that which has not yet been known by man, but needs to be known. A problem is a process that includes two main points - its formulation and solution.

- Hypothesis– a form of theoretical knowledge containing an assumption formulated on the basis of a number of facts, the true meaning of which is uncertain and requires proof.

- Theory is a holistic, developing system of true knowledge (including elements of error), which has a complex structure and performs a number of functions. From a mathematical point of view, a theory is a set of propositions that are closed with respect to deducibility. Theory is a logically interconnected system of concepts and statements about the properties, relationships and laws of some idealized objects (philosophical dictionary). Basic functions of the theory: synthetic (combining individual reliable knowledge into an integral unified system), explanatory (identifying causal and other dependencies, the variety of connections of a given phenomenon, its essential characteristics, laws of its origin and development), methodological (formulation of methods, methods and techniques of research activities), predictive , practical.

- Law– a key element of the theory. Scientific law- this is a universal necessary, repeating, objective connection of phenomena. Many laws describe not the connection of phenomena, but their structure (structural laws). IN general view a law can be defined as a connection (relationship) between phenomena, processes, which is: objective (inherent primarily real world, sensory-objective activity of people, expresses the real relationships of things.), essential (specific-universal - the law is inherent in all processes of a given class, certain type and acts always and wherever the corresponding processes and conditions unfold), necessary, internal (reflects the deepest connections and dependencies of a given subject area) and repeating, sustainable.

The key task of scientific research is to find the laws of a given subject area, a certain sphere of reality, to express them in relevant concepts, abstractions, theories, ideas, principles.

Laws are first discovered in the form of assumptions and hypotheses. Further experimental material and new facts lead to the purification of these hypotheses, eliminating some of them and correcting others, until the law is established in its pure form. One of the most important requirements for scientific hypothesis– its fundamental verifiability in practice (in experience, experiment), which distinguishes a hypothesis from a speculative construction.

The discovery and formulation of a law is the most important, but not the last task of science, which must still show how the law it discovered works.

Let us highlight the methods of theoretical knowledge:

1) Formalization– display of content knowledge in a sign-symbolic form (formalized language). The latter is created to accurately express thoughts in order to eliminate the possibility of ambiguous understanding. When formalizing, reasoning about objects is transferred to the plane of operating with signs (formulas), which is associated with the construction of artificial languages.

2) Axiomatic method- a method of constructing a scientific theory, in which it is based on certain initial provisions - axioms (postulates), from which all other statements of this theory are deduced in a purely logical way, through evidence. To derive theorems from axioms (and in general some formulas from others), special rules of inference are formulated.

The axiomatic method is just one of the methods for constructing already acquired scientific knowledge. It has limited application because it requires a high level of development of an axiomatized substantive theory.

3) Hypothetico-deductive method- a method of scientific knowledge, the essence of which is to create a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses, from which statements about empirical facts are ultimately derived.

This method is based on the deduction of conclusions from hypotheses and other premises, the true meaning of which is unknown. This means that the conclusion obtained on the basis of this method will inevitably be probabilistic in nature.

General structure of the hypothetico-deductive method:

Familiarization with factual material that requires a theoretical explanation and an attempt to do so with the help of already existing theories and laws. If not, then:

Proposing conjectures (hypotheses) about the causes and patterns of these phenomena using a variety of logical techniques;

Assessing the validity and seriousness of assumptions and selecting the most probable one from among them;

Deriving consequences from the hypothesis with clarification of its content;

Experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis. Here the hypothesis either receives experimental confirmation or is refuted. The best hypothesis based on the test results becomes a theory.

4) Ascent from abstract to concrete– a method of theoretical research and presentation, consisting in the movement of scientific thought from the initial abstraction (“beginning” - one-sided, incomplete knowledge) through successive stages of deepening and expanding knowledge to the result - a holistic reproduction in theory of the subject under study.

Let us now turn to the analysis of the theoretical level of knowledge. Here, too, two sublevels can be distinguished (with a certain degree of convention). The first of them forms particular theoretical models and laws, which act as theories relating to a fairly limited area of ​​phenomena. The second consists of developed scientific theories that include particular theoretical laws as consequences derived from the fundamental laws of the theory.

Examples of knowledge of the first sublevel include theoretical models and laws that characterize certain types of mechanical motion: the model and law of oscillation of a pendulum (Huygens’s laws), the movement of planets around the Sun (Kepler’s laws), the free fall of bodies (Galileo’s laws), etc. They were obtained before how Newtonian mechanics was constructed. This theory itself, which summarized all previous theoretical knowledge about individual aspects of mechanical motion, is a typical example of developed theories that belong to the second sublevel of theoretical knowledge.

Method is a set of techniques and operations used in practical or theoretical activities. Methods act as a form of mastering reality.

Methods of cognition according to the principle of the relationship between the general and the particular, they are divided into universal (universal), general scientific (general logical) and They are also classified from the point of view of the relationship of empirical or theoretical knowledge into methods, methods general for empirical and theoretical research, as well as purely theoretical research.

It must be taken into account that individual branches of scientific knowledge use their own special, specific scientific methods of studying phenomena and processes that are determined by the essence of the object under study. However, there are methods characteristic of a particular science that are successfully applied in other fields of knowledge. For example, physical and chemical are used by biology, since the objects of study of biology include both physical and chemical forms of existence and movement of matter.

General methods of cognition are divided into dialectical and metaphysical. They are called general philosophical.

Dialectical comes down to the knowledge of reality in its integrity, development and its inherent contradictions. Metaphysical is the opposite of dialectical; it considers phenomena without taking into account their interrelationships and processes of change over time. Approximately from mid-19th century, the metaphysical method is replaced by the dialectical one.

General logical methods of cognition include synthesis, analysis, abstraction, generalization, induction, deduction, analogy, modeling, historical and

Analysis is the decomposition of an object into components. Synthesis is the combination of known elements into one whole. Generalization is a mental transition from the individual to the general. Abstraction (idealization) - making mental changes to the object of study in accordance with the goals of the study. Induction is the derivation of general provisions from observations of particular facts. Deduction is analytical reasoning from the general to the specific details. Analogy is a plausible and probable conclusion about the presence of similar features of two objects or phenomena according to a certain characteristic. Modeling is the creation of a model based on an analogue, taking into account all the properties of the object under study. The historical method is the reproduction of facts from the history of the phenomenon being studied in their versatility, taking into account details and accidents. The logical method is to reproduce the history of the object of study by freeing it from everything random and unimportant.

Methods of cognitionempirical are divided into measurement, observation, description, experiment and comparison.

Observation is an organized and focused perception of the object of study. An experiment differs from an observation in that it requires the constant activity of the participants. Measurement is the process of material comparison of a certain quantity with a standard or established unit of measurement. In science, the relativity of the properties of the object of study in relation to these means of research is taken into account.

Methods of cognitiontheoretical combine formalization, axiomatization,

Formalization is the construction of abstract and mathematical models that are aimed at revealing the essence of the object being studied. Axiomatization is the creation of theories based on axioms. The hypothetico-deductive method consists of creating deductively related hypotheses from which an empirical conclusion can be drawn about the fact being studied.

Forms and methods of cognition are directly related to each other. Forms of knowledge include hypotheses, principles, problems, ideas, theories, categories and laws.

Cognition is the process of gaining knowledge about the world around us and about ourselves. Knowledge begins from the moment a person begins to ask himself questions: who am I, why did I come into this world, what mission should I fulfill. Cognition is a constant process. It occurs even when a person is not aware of what thoughts guide his actions and actions. Cognition as a process is studied by a number of sciences: psychology, philosophy, sociology, scientific methodology, history, science. The purpose of any knowledge is to improve yourself and expand your horizons.

Structure of cognition

Cognition as a scientific category has a clearly defined structure. Cognition necessarily includes a subject and an object. The subject is understood as a person who takes active steps to carry out cognition. The object of cognition is what the subject’s attention is directed to. Other people, natural and social phenomena, any items.

Methods of cognition

Methods of cognition are understood as tools with the help of which the process of acquiring new knowledge about the world around us is carried out. Methods of cognition are traditionally divided into empirical and theoretical.

Empirical methods of cognition

Empirical methods of cognition involve the study of an object using any research activities confirmed experimentally. Empirical methods of cognition include: observation, experiment, measurement, comparison.

• Observation is a method of cognition during which an object is studied without direct interaction with it. In other words, the observer can be at a distance from the object of knowledge and still receive the information he needs. With the help of observation, the subject can draw his own conclusions on a particular issue and build additional assumptions. The observation method is widely used in their activities by psychologists, medical personnel, and social workers.
• Experiment is a method of cognition in which immersion occurs in a specially created environment. This method of cognition involves some abstraction from outside world. Experiments are carried out Scientific research. During this method of cognition, the put forward hypothesis is confirmed or refuted.
• Measurement is an analysis of any parameters of the object of cognition: weight, size, length, etc. During the comparison, the significant characteristics of the object of knowledge are compared.

Theoretical methods of cognition

Theoretical methods of cognition involve the study of an object through the analysis of various categories and concepts. The truth of the hypothesis being put forward is not confirmed experimentally, but is proven using existing postulates and final conclusions. Theoretical methods of cognition include: analysis, synthesis, classification, generalization, concretization, abstraction, analogy, deduction, induction, idealization, modeling, formalization.

• Analysis implies mental analysis of a whole object of knowledge into small parts. The analysis reveals the connection between the components, their differences and other features. Analysis as a method of cognition is widely used in scientific and research activities.
• Synthesis involves combining individual parts into a single whole, discovering a connecting link between them. Synthesis is actively used in the process of all cognition: in order to accept new information, it is necessary to correlate it with existing knowledge.
• Classification is a grouping of objects united according to specific parameters.
• Generalization involves grouping individual items according to their main characteristics.
• Specification is a clarification process carried out with the aim of focusing attention on significant details of an object or phenomenon.
• Abstraction involves focusing on the private side of a particular subject in order to discover new approach, acquire a different perspective on the problem being studied. At the same time, other components are not considered, are not taken into account, or are given insufficient attention.
• Analogy carried out with the aim of identifying the presence of similar objects in the object of cognition.
• Deduction- this is a transition from the general to the specific as a result of conclusions proven in the process of cognition.
• Induction- this is a transition from the particular to the whole as a result of conclusions proven in the process of cognition.
• Idealization implies the formation of separate concepts denoting an object that do not exist in reality.
• Modeling involves the formation and consistent study of any category of existing objects in the process of cognition.
• Formalization reflects objects or phenomena using generally accepted symbols: letters, numbers, formulas or other symbols.

Types of knowledge

Types of cognition are understood as the main directions of human consciousness, with the help of which the process of cognition is carried out. Sometimes they are called forms of cognition.

Ordinary cognition

This type of cognition implies that a person receives basic information about the world around him in the process of life activity. Even a child has ordinary knowledge. A little person, receiving the necessary knowledge, draws his own conclusions and gains experience. Even if a negative experience comes, in the future it will help to develop such qualities as caution, attentiveness, and prudence. A responsible approach develops through understanding the experience gained and living it internally. As a result of everyday knowledge, an individual develops an idea of ​​how one can and cannot act in life, what one should count on and what one should forget about. Ordinary cognition is based on elementary ideas about the world and connections between existing objects. It does not affect general cultural values, does not consider the worldview of the individual, his religious and moral orientation. Ordinary cognition strives only to satisfy a momentary request about the surrounding reality. A person simply accumulates the useful experience and knowledge necessary for further life activities.

Scientific knowledge

This type of cognition is based on a logical approach. Its other name is . Here big role plays a detailed consideration of the situation in which the subject is immersed. Using a scientific approach, existing objects are analyzed and appropriate conclusions are drawn. Scientific knowledge is widely used in research projects any direction. With the help of science, many facts are proven true or disproved. Scientific approach is subject to many components, cause-and-effect relationships play a large role.

IN scientific activity the process of cognition is carried out by putting forward hypotheses and proving them in practice. As a result of the research, the scientist can confirm his assumptions or completely abandon them if the final product does not meet the stated goal. Scientific knowledge is based primarily on logic and common sense.

Artistic knowledge

This type of cognition is also called creative. This knowledge is based on artistic images and affects the intellectual sphere of activity of the individual. Here, the truth of any statements cannot be proven scientifically, since the artist comes into contact with the category of beauty. Reality is reflected in artistic images, and is not constructed by the method of mental analysis. Artistic knowledge is limitless in its essence. The nature of creative knowledge of the world is such that a person himself models an image in his head with the help of thoughts and ideas. The material created in this way is an individual creative product and receives the right to exist. Each artist has his own inner world, which he reveals to other people through creative activity: an artist paints pictures, a writer writes books, a musician composes music. Every creative thinking has its own truth and fiction.

Philosophical knowledge

This type of cognition consists of the intention to interpret reality by determining a person’s place in the world. Philosophical knowledge is characterized by the search for individual truth, constant reflection on the meaning of life, appeal to such concepts as conscience, purity of thoughts, love, talent. Philosophy tries to penetrate into the essence of the most complex categories, to explain mystical and eternal things, to determine the essence human existence, existential questions of choice. Philosophical knowledge is aimed at understanding controversial issues of existence. Often, as a result of such research, the activist comes to understand the ambivalence of all things. A philosophical approach involves seeing the second (hidden) side of any object, phenomenon or judgment.

Religious knowledge

This type of cognition is aimed at studying human relationships with higher powers. The Almighty here is considered simultaneously as an object of study, and at the same time as a subject, since religious consciousness implies the praise of the divine principle. A religious person interprets all current events from the point of view of divine providence. He analyzes his inner state, mood and waits for some specific response from above to certain actions performed in life. For him, the spiritual component of any business, morality and moral principles are of great importance. Such a person often sincerely wishes others happiness and wants to fulfill the will of the Almighty. A religiously minded consciousness implies a search for the only correct truth, which would be useful to many, and not to one specific person. Questions that are posed to the individual: what is good and evil, how to live according to conscience, what is the sacred duty of each of us.

Mythological knowledge

This type of cognition belongs to primitive society. This is a version of the knowledge of a person who considered himself an integral part of nature. Ancient people sought answers to questions about the essence of life differently than modern people; they endowed nature with divine power. That is why the mythological consciousness formed its gods and the corresponding attitude to current events. Primitive society abdicated responsibility for what happens in everyday reality and turned entirely to nature.

Self-knowledge

This type of cognition is aimed at studying one’s true states, moods and conclusions. Self-knowledge always implies a deep analysis of one’s own feelings, thoughts, actions, ideals, and aspirations. Those who have been actively engaged in self-knowledge for several years note that they have highly developed intuition. Such a person will not get lost in the crowd, will not succumb to the “herd” feeling, but will make responsible decisions on his own. Self-knowledge leads a person to understand his motives, comprehend the years he has lived and the deeds he has committed. As a result of self-knowledge, a person’s mental and physical activity increases, he accumulates self-confidence, and becomes truly courageous and enterprising.

Thus, cognition as a deep process of acquiring the necessary knowledge about the surrounding reality has its own structure, methods and types. Each type of cognition corresponds different periods in the history of social thought and the personal choice of an individual.