Features of classicism. Development of classicism in the world

Classicism (from the Latin classicus – exemplary) – art style and the direction in the art of Europe in the 17th – 19th centuries. It is based on the ideas of rationalism, the main objective which educate the public on the basis of a certain ideal, model, which is similar to. Culture served as such an example. ancient world. The rules and canons of classicism were of paramount importance; they had to be observed by all artists working within the framework of this direction and style.

History of origin

As a movement, classicism embraced all types of art: painting, music, literature, architecture.

Classicism, the main goal of which is to educate the public on the basis of a certain ideal and compliance with all generally accepted canons, is completely opposite, which denied all the rules and was a rebellion against any artistic tradition in any direction.

In its development, classicism went through 3 stages:

1. Early classicism(1760s – early 1780s);
2. Strict classicism(1780s – 1790s);
3. Late classicism, called (the first 30 years of the 19th century).

The photo shows the Arc de Triomphe in Paris - a striking example of classicism.

Style features

Classicism is characterized by clear geometric shapes, high-quality materials, noble finishes and restraint. Majesty and harmony, grace and luxury – these are the main distinctive features of classicism. later displayed in minimalist interiors.

General style features:

• smooth walls with soft floral motifs;
• elements of antiquity: palaces and columns;
• stucco;
• exquisite parquet;
• fabric wallpaper on the walls;
• elegant, graceful furniture.

The peculiarities of the Russian classic style were calm rectangular shapes, restrained and at the same time varied decorative design, precise proportions, dignified appearance, harmony and taste.

Exterior

The external signs of classicist architecture are clearly expressed and can be identified at the first glance at the building.

• Designs: stable, massive, rectangular and arched. The compositions are clearly planned, strict symmetry is observed.
• Shapes: clear geometry, volume and monumentality; statues, columns, niches, rotunda, hemispheres, pediments, friezes.
• Lines: strict; regular planning system; bas-reliefs, medallions, smooth pattern.
• Materials: stone, brick, wood, stucco.
• Roof: complex, intricate shape.
• Predominant colors: rich white, green, pink, purple, sky blue, gold.
• Characteristic elements: restrained decor, columns, pilasters, antique ornaments, marble staircase, balconies.
• Window: semicircular, rectangular, elongated upward, modestly decorated.
• Doors: rectangular, paneled, often decorated with statues (lion, sphinx).
• Decor: carving, gilding, bronze, mother-of-pearl, inlay.

Interior

The interior of the premises of the classicism era contains nobility, restraint and harmony. However, all interior items do not look like museum exhibits, but only emphasize the subtle artistic taste and respectability of the owner.

The room has the correct shape, filled with an atmosphere of nobility, comfort, warmth, and exquisite luxury; not overloaded with details.

The central place in interior decoration is occupied by natural materials, mainly valuable wood, marble, stone, and silk.

• Ceilings: light, tall, often multi-level, with stucco and ornaments.
• Walls: decorated with fabrics, light but not bright, pilasters and columns, stucco or painting are possible.
• Flooring: parquet made of valuable wood species (merbau, camsha, teak, jatoba) or marble.
• Lighting: chandeliers made of crystal, stone or expensive glass; gilded chandeliers with candle-shaped shades.
• Required interior attributes: mirrors, fireplaces, cozy low armchairs, low tea tables, light handmade carpets, paintings with antique scenes, books, massive antique-style floor vases, tripod flower stands.

Antique motifs are often used in the decor of the room: meanders, festoons, laurel garlands, strings of pearls. Expensive textiles are used for decoration, including tapestries, taffeta and velvet.

Furniture

Furniture from the Classical era is distinguished by its quality and respectability, made of expensive materials, mainly valuable wood. It is noteworthy that the texture of wood acts not only as a material, but also as a decorative element. Furniture items are made by hand, decorated with carvings, gilding, inlay, precious stones and metals. But the form is simple: strict lines, clear proportions. The dining room tables and chairs are made with elegant carved legs. The dishes are porcelain, thin, almost transparent, with a pattern and gilding. A secretary with a cubic body on high legs was considered one of the most important attributes of furniture.

Architecture

Classicism turned to the fundamentals of ancient architecture, using not only elements and motifs, but also patterns in design. The basis of the architectural language is the order with its strict symmetry, proportionality of the created composition, regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form.

Classicism is the complete opposite with its pretentiousness and decorative excesses.

Unfortified palaces and garden and park ensembles were created, which became the basis of the French garden with its straightened alleys, trimmed lawns in the shape of cones and balls. Typical details of classicism are accented stairs, classic antique decor, a dome in public buildings.

Late classicism (Empire style) acquires military symbols (« Triumphal Arch" in France). In Russia, St. Petersburg can be called the canon of the architectural style of classicism; in Europe, these are Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh.

Sculpture

In the era of classicism, public monuments embodying military valor and the wisdom of statesmen became widespread. Moreover, the main solution for the sculptors was the model of depicting famous figures in the image of ancient gods (for example, Suvorov - in the form of Mars). It has become popular among individuals to commission sculptors tombstones to perpetuate their names. In general, the sculptures of the era are characterized by calmness, restraint of gestures, dispassionate expressions, and purity of lines.

Fashion

Interest in antiquity in clothing began to manifest itself in the 80s of the 18th century. This was especially evident in women's clothing. A new ideal of beauty emerged in Europe, one that celebrated natural forms and the beautiful feminine lines. The finest smooth fabrics in light colors, especially white, have come into fashion.

Women's dresses lost frames, padding and petticoats and took the form of long, pleated tunics, cut at the sides and tied with a belt under the bust. They were worn over flesh-colored tights. Sandals with ribbons served as footwear. Hairstyles have been copied since antiquity. Powder, which was used to cover the face, hands, and décolleté, is still in fashion.

Accessories included either muslin turbans decorated with feathers, Turkish scarves or Kashmiri shawls.

WITH early XIX centuries, formal dresses began to be sewn with trains and a deep neckline. And in everyday dresses, the neckline was covered with a lace scarf. The hairstyle gradually changes, and the powder goes out of use. Fashion includes short-cropped hair, curled into curls, tied with a gold ribbon or decorated with a crown of flowers.

Men's fashion developed under the influence of the British. English cloth tailcoats, redingotes (outerwear resembling a frock coat), jabots and cuffs are becoming popular. It was in the era of classicism that men's ties came into fashion.

Art

In painting, classicism is also characterized by restraint and severity. The main elements of form are line and light and shade. Local color emphasizes the plasticity of objects and figures and divides the spatial plan of the picture. The greatest master of the 17th century. – Lorraine Claude, famous for his “ideal landscapes.” Civic pathos and lyricism were combined in the “decorative landscapes” of the French painter Jacques Louis David (18th century). Among Russian artists one can single out Karl Bryullov, who combined classicism with (19th century).

Classicism in music is associated with such great names as Mozart, Beethoven and Haydn, who defined further development musical art.

Literature

The literature of the classic era promoted reason conquering feelings. The conflict between duty and passions is the basis of the plot of a literary work. Language reforms were carried out in many countries and the foundations of poetic art were laid. Leading representatives of the direction are Francois Malherbe, Corneille, Racine. The main compositional principle of the work is the unity of time, place and action.

In Russia, classicism develops under the auspices of the Enlightenment, the main ideas of which were equality and justice. The most prominent representative of the literature of the era of Russian classicism is M. Lomonosov, who laid the foundations of versification. The main genre was comedy and satire. Fonvizin and Kantemir worked in this direction.

The "Golden Age" is considered the era of classicism for theatrical arts, which developed very dynamically and improved. The theater was quite professional, and the actor on stage did not just act, but lived, experienced, while remaining himself. The theatrical style was proclaimed the art of declamation.

Personalities

Among the brightest classicists one can also highlight such names as:

• Jacques-Ange Gabriel, Piranesi, Jacques-Germain Soufflot, Bazhenov, Carl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin, (architecture);
• Antonio Canova, Thorvaldsen, Fedot Shubin, Boris Orlovsky, Mikhail Kozlovsky (sculpture);
• Nicolas Poussin, Lebrun, Ingres (painting);
• Voltaire, Samuel Johnson, Derzhavin, Sumarokov, Khemnitser (literature).

Video review of classicism

Conclusion

Ideas from the era of classicism are successfully used in modern design. It retains nobility and elegance, beauty and grandeur. The main features are wall paintings, drapery, stucco, furniture made of natural wood. There are few decorations, but they are all luxurious: mirrors, paintings, massive chandeliers. In general, the style still characterizes the owner as a respectable, far from poor person.

Later, another appears, which marked the arrival of a new era - this. was a combination of several modern styles, which includes not only classical, but also baroque (in painting), ancient culture, and the Renaissance.

By the end of the 18th century, classicism became the dominant artistic movement in the cultural development of Western European countries. turns to the heritage of the ancient era, taking it as an ideal example and norm. Classicism in literature is inextricably linked with the activities of Francois Malherbe. He initiated the reform of verse and language, thanks to him certain poetic canons were established in literature.

Classicism is a style that dominated the art of the 10th-19th centuries. This direction, based on the ideas of rationalism, sought to elevate moral and heroic ideals.

Classicism in literature divides the main genres into two types: high and low. The first includes works that tell about outstanding people and events. These genres include ode, tragedy and heroic song. The main characters here are politicians, famous artists, and monarchs - those people about whom it is customary to speak in majestic, solemn language. Low genres describe the life of the private bourgeoisie, the so-called third estate. These include comedy, fable, satire and other works written in

Classicism in literature puts the tragedy genre in first place. It is he who is able to expose the most important moral problems. Social conflicts are reflected in the souls of the main characters, faced with a choice between personal interests, passions and moral duty. Reason is opposed to feelings.

During the period of classicism in the works of J. Lafontaine, N. Boileau and J.-B. Moliere's fable, satire and comedy reach a high level of development. These works, which solve important philosophical and moral problems of modern society, cease to be a “low” genre and acquire a certain dramatic significance.

In the era of classicism, a huge number of prose works. The works of B. Pascal, M. Lafayette, J. La Bruyère and other writers of this period are distinguished by their typification of passions, analytical worldview, clarity and precision of style.

Classicism in literature reflects the main trends of urban poetry. In their works, writers sought to convey to the reader the importance of people fulfilling their responsibilities to society, the need to educate a citizen.

We can list the main features of classicism:

• images and forms of works are taken from ancient art;
• dividing heroes into positive and negative;
• the plot of the classic work is based on a love triangle;
• in the finale, good triumphs, and evil remains punished;
• adherence to the principle of three unities: place, action and time.

Traditionally, the authors took a certain historical event as the basis for the plot of a classical work. The main character of the work is a virtuous person who is alien to any vices. Classical works were imbued with the ideas of rationalism and service to the state.

In Russia, this trend was first reflected in the works of M. Lomonosov, and then developed in the works of V. Trediakovsky and other educators. The theme of the tragedies is based on national historical events (A. Sumarokov, N. Nikolaev, Y. Knyazhnin), and their style contains lyricism and “mouthpiece” of the main characters. The main characters express the author's ideas directly and boldly. We can say that it has become a means of satirically exposing the pathos of citizenship.

After the publication of V. Belinsky’s articles, a negative attitude towards this direction was established in academic science and criticism. Only in Soviet period managed to return this style to its former significance and importance.

CLASSICISM (from the Latin classicus - exemplary), style and artistic direction in literature, architecture and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, classicism is successively associated with the Renaissance; occupied, along with the Baroque, an important place in the culture of the 17th century; continued its development during the Age of Enlightenment. The origin and spread of classicism is associated with the strengthening of the absolute monarchy, with the influence of the philosophy of R. Descartes, with the development of the exact sciences. The basis of the rationalistic aesthetics of classicism is the desire for balance, clarity, and consistency of artistic expression (largely adopted from the aesthetics of the Renaissance); conviction in the existence of universal and eternal rules, not subject to historical changes artistic creativity, which are interpreted as skill, mastery, and not a manifestation of spontaneous inspiration or self-expression.

Having accepted the idea of ​​creativity as an imitation of nature, dating back to Aristotle, the classicists understood nature as an ideal norm, which had already been embodied in the works of ancient masters and writers: the focus on “beautiful nature,” transformed and ordered in accordance with the immutable laws of art, thus implied imitation antique models and even competition with them. Developing the idea of ​​art as a rational activity based on the eternal categories of “beautiful”, “expedient”, etc., classicism, more than other artistic movements, contributed to the emergence of aesthetics as a generalizing science of beauty.

The central concept of classicism - verisimilitude - did not imply an accurate reproduction of empirical reality: the world is recreated not as it is, but as it should be. The preference for a universal norm as “due” to everything particular, random, and concrete corresponds to the ideology of an absolutist state expressed by classicism, in which everything personal and private is subordinated to the indisputable will of state power. The classicist depicted not a specific, individual personality, but an abstract person in a situation of a universal, ahistorical moral conflict; hence the classicists’ orientation toward ancient mythology as the embodiment of universal knowledge about the world and man. The ethical ideal of classicism presupposes, on the one hand, the subordination of the personal to the general, passions to duty, reason, resistance to the vicissitudes of existence; on the other hand, restraint in the manifestation of feelings, adherence to moderation, appropriateness, and the ability to please.

Classicism strictly subordinated creativity to the rules of the genre-style hierarchy. A distinction was made between “high” (for example, epic, tragedy, ode - in literature; historical, religious, mythological genre, portrait - in painting) and “low” (satire, comedy, fable; still life in painting) genres, which corresponded to a certain style, range of themes and heroes; a clear distinction between the tragic and the comic, the sublime and the base, the heroic and the ordinary was prescribed.

From the middle of the 18th century, classicism was gradually replaced by new movements - sentimentalism, pre-romanticism, romanticism. The traditions of classicism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were resurrected in neoclassicism.

The term “classicism,” which goes back to the concept of classics (exemplary writers), was first used in 1818 by the Italian critic G. Visconti. It was widely used in the polemics between classicists and romantics, and among the romantics (J. de Staël, V. Hugo, etc.) it had a negative connotation: classicism and the classics who imitated antiquity were opposed to innovative romantic literature. In literary and art history, the concept of “classicism” began to be actively used after the works of scientists of the cultural-historical school and G. Wölfflin.

Stylistic trends similar to the classicism of the 17th and 18th centuries are seen by some scientists in other eras; in this case, the concept of “classicism” is interpreted in a broad sense, denoting a stylistic constant that is periodically updated at various stages of the history of art and literature (for example, “ancient classicism”, “Renaissance classicism”).

N. T. Pakhsaryan.

Literature. The origins of literary classicism are in normative poetics (Yu. Ts. Scaliger, L. Castelvetro, etc.) and in Italian literature of the 16th century, where a genre system was created, correlated with the system of linguistic styles and focused on ancient examples. The highest flowering of classicism is associated with French literature of the 17th century. The founder of the poetics of classicism was F. Malherbe, who carried out the regulation of the literary language on the basis of living colloquial speech; the reform he carried out was consolidated by the French Academy. The principles of literary classicism were set out in their most complete form in the treatise “Poetic Art” by N. Boileau (1674), which summarized the artistic practice of his contemporaries.

Classical writers regard literature as an important mission of embodying in words and conveying to the reader the requirements of nature and reason, as a way to “educate while entertaining.” The literature of classicism strives for a clear expression of significant thought, meaning (“... meaning always lives in my creation” - F. von Logau), it refuses stylistic sophistication and rhetorical embellishments. The classicists preferred laconicism to verbosity, simplicity and clarity to metaphorical complexity, and decency to extravagantness. Following established norms did not mean, however, that classicists encouraged pedantry and ignored the role of artistic intuition. Although the classicists saw rules as a way to keep creative freedom within the bounds of reason, they understood the importance of intuitive insight, forgiving talent to deviate from the rules if it was appropriate and artistically effective.

The characters in classicism are built on the identification of one dominant trait, which helps to transform them into universal human types. Favorite collisions are the clash of duty and feelings, the struggle of reason and passion. At the center of the works of the classicists is a heroic personality and at the same time a well-bred person who stoically strives to overcome his own passions and affects, to curb or at least realize them (like the heroes of the tragedies of J. Racine). Descartes’ “I think, therefore I am” plays the role of not only a philosophical and intellectual, but also an ethical principle in the worldview of the characters of classicism.

The literary theory of classicism is based on a hierarchical system of genres; analytical dilution across different works, even art worlds, “high” and “low” heroes and themes is combined with the desire to ennoble “low” genres; for example, to rid satire of crude burlesque, comedy of farcical features (“high comedy” by Molière).

The main place in the literature of classicism was occupied by drama based on rule of three unities (see Three unities theory). Its leading genre was tragedy, the highest achievements of which are the works of P. Corneille and J. Racine; in the first, the tragedy takes on a heroic character, in the second, a lyrical character. Other “high” genres play a much smaller role in the literary process (J. Chaplain’s unsuccessful experiment in the genre of epic poem was subsequently parodied by Voltaire; solemn odes were written by F. Malherbe and N. Boileau). At the same time, “low” genres received significant development: irocomic poem and satire (M. Renier, Boileau), fable (J. de La Fontaine), comedy. Genres of short didactic prose are cultivated - aphorisms (maxims), “characters” (B. Pascal, F. de La Rochefoucauld, J. de Labruyère); oratorical prose (J.B. Bossuet). Although the theory of classicism did not include the novel in the system of genres worthy of serious critical reflection, M. M. Lafayette’s psychological masterpiece “The Princess of Cleves” (1678) is considered an example of a classicist novel.

At the end of the 17th century, there was a decline in literary classicism, but archaeological interest in antiquity in the 18th century, excavations of Herculaneum, Pompeii, the creation of I. I. Winkelman ideal image Greek antiquity as "noble simplicity and calm grandeur" contributed to its new rise during the Enlightenment. The main representative of the new classicism was Voltaire, in whose work rationalism and the cult of reason served to justify not the norms of absolutist statehood, but the right of the individual to freedom from the claims of the church and state. Enlightenment classicism, actively interacting with other literary movements of the era, is based not on “rules”, but rather on the “enlightened taste” of the public. Appeal to antiquity becomes a way of expressing the heroism of the French Revolution of the 18th century in the poetry of A. Chenier.

In France in the 17th century, classicism developed into a powerful and consistent artistic system and had a noticeable impact on Baroque literature. In Germany, classicism arose as a conscious cultural effort to create a “correct” and “perfect” worthy of others European literatures the poetic school (M. Opitz), on the contrary, was drowned out by the Baroque, the style of which was more consistent with the tragic era of the Thirty Years' War; I. K. Gottsched's belated attempt in the 1730s and 40s to direct German literature along the path of classicist canons caused fierce controversy and was generally rejected. An independent aesthetic phenomenon is the Weimar classicism of J. W. Goethe and F. Schiller. In Great Britain, early classicism is associated with the work of J. Dryden; its further development proceeded in line with the Enlightenment (A. Pope, S. Johnson). By the end of the 17th century, classicism in Italy existed in parallel with Rococo and was sometimes intertwined with it (for example, in the work of the Arcadia poets - A. Zeno, P. Metastasio, P. Ya. Martello, S. Maffei); Enlightenment classicism is represented by the work of V. Alfieri.

In Russia, classicism was established in the 1730-1750s under the influence of Western European classicism and the ideas of the Enlightenment; at the same time, it clearly shows a connection with the Baroque. The distinctive features of Russian classicism are pronounced didacticism, accusatory, socially critical orientation, national patriotic pathos, and reliance on folk art. One of the first principles of classicism was transferred to Russian soil by A.D. Kantemir. In his satires, he followed I. Boileau, but, creating generalized images of human vices, adapted them to domestic reality. Kantemir introduced new poetic genres into Russian literature: arrangements of psalms, fables, and a heroic poem (“Petrida”, unfinished). The first example of a classic laudatory ode was created by V.K. Trediakovsky (“Solemn Ode on the Surrender of the City of Gdansk,” 1734), who accompanied it with a theoretical “Discourse on the Ode in General” (both following Boileau). The odes of M.V. Lomonosov are marked by the influence of Baroque poetics. Russian classicism is most fully and consistently represented by the work of A.P. Sumarokov. Having set out the main provisions of the classicist doctrine in the “Epistole on Poetry” (1747), written in imitation of Boileau’s treatise, Sumarokov sought to follow them in his works: tragedies focused on the work of the French classicists of the 17th century and the dramaturgy of Voltaire, but addressed primarily to events national history; partly - in comedies, the model for which was the work of Moliere; in satires, as well as fables, which brought him the fame of the “northern La Fontaine.” He also developed a genre of song, which was not mentioned by Boileau, but was included by Sumarokov himself in the list of poetic genres. Until the end of the 18th century, the classification of genres proposed by Lomonosov in the preface to the collected works of 1757, “On the Use of Church Books in the Russian Language,” retained its significance, which correlated the three-style theory with specific genres, linking with the high “calm” the heroic poem, ode, solemn speeches; with the average - tragedy, satire, elegy, eclogue; with low - comedy, song, epigram. A sample of the irocomic poem was created by V. I. Maikov (“Elisha, or the Irritated Bacchus,” 1771). The first completed heroic epic was “Rossiyada” by M. M. Kheraskov (1779). At the end of the 18th century, the principles of classicist drama appeared in the works of N. P. Nikolev, Ya. B. Knyazhnin, V. V. Kapnist. At the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, classicism was gradually replaced by new trends literary development, associated with pre-romanticism and sentimentalism, however, it retains its influence for some time. Its traditions can be traced in the 1800-20s in the works of Radishchev poets (A. Kh. Vostokov, I. P. Pnin, V. V. Popugaev), in literary criticism (A. F. Merzlyakov), in literary and aesthetic program and genre-stylistic practice of the Decembrist poets, in early work A. S. Pushkin.

A. P. Losenko. "Vladimir and Rogneda." 1770. Russian Museum (St. Petersburg).

N. T. Pakhsaryan; T. G. Yurchenko (classicism in Russia).

Architecture and fine arts. The trends of classicism in European art emerged already in the 2nd half of the 16th century in Italy - in the architectural theory and practice of A. Palladio, the theoretical treatises of G. da Vignola, S. Serlio; more consistently - in the works of J. P. Bellori (17th century), as well as in the aesthetic standards of the academicians of the Bolognese school. However, in the 17th century, classicism, which developed in intensely polemical interaction with the Baroque, only developed into a coherent stylistic system in French artistic culture. The classicism of the 18th and early 19th centuries was formed primarily in France, which became a pan-European style (the latter is often called neoclassicism in foreign art history). The principles of rationalism underlying the aesthetics of classicism determined the view of a work of art as the fruit of reason and logic, triumphing over the chaos and fluidity of sensory life. The focus on a rational principle, on timeless patterns, also determined the normative requirements of the aesthetics of classicism, the regulation of artistic rules, and the strict hierarchy of genres in the fine arts (the “high” genre includes works on mythological and historical subjects, as well as the “ideal landscape” and ceremonial portrait; “ low" - still life, everyday genre, etc.). The consolidation of the theoretical doctrines of classicism was facilitated by the activities of the royal academies founded in Paris - painting and sculpture (1648) and architecture (1671).

The architecture of classicism, in contrast to baroque with its dramatic conflict of forms, energetic interaction of volume and spatial environment, is based on the principle of harmony and internal completeness, both of an individual building and an ensemble. Characteristics This style includes a desire for clarity and unity of the whole, symmetry and balance, certainty of plastic forms and spatial intervals that create a calm and solemn rhythm; a proportioning system based on multiple ratios of integers (a single module that determines the patterns of shape formation). The constant appeal of the masters of classicism to the heritage of ancient architecture implied not only the use of its individual motifs and elements, but also the comprehension of the general laws of its architectonics. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was an architectural order, with proportions and forms closer to antiquity than in the architecture of previous eras; in buildings it is used in such a way that it does not obscure the overall structure of the structure, but becomes its subtle and restrained accompaniment. The interiors of classicism are characterized by clarity of spatial divisions and softness of colors. By making extensive use of perspective effects in monumental and decorative painting, the masters of classicism fundamentally separated the illusory space from the real.

An important place in the architecture of classicism belongs to the problems of urban planning. Projects of “ideal cities” are being developed, new type regular absolutist city-residence (Versailles). Classicism strives to continue the traditions of antiquity and the Renaissance, laying the basis for its decisions on the principle of proportionality to man and, at the same time, scale, giving the architectural image a heroically elevated sound. And although the rhetorical pomp of palace decoration comes into conflict with this dominant tendency, the stable figurative structure of classicism preserves the unity of the style, no matter how diverse its modifications in the process of historical development.

The formation of classicism in French architecture is associated with the works of J. Lemercier and F. Mansart. The appearance of the buildings and construction techniques initially resemble the architecture of 16th century castles; a decisive turning point occurred in the work of L. Lebrun - first of all, in the creation of the palace and park ensemble of Vaux-le-Vicomte, with the solemn enfilade of the palace itself, the impressive paintings of C. Le Brun and the most characteristic expression of new principles - the regular parterre park of A. Le Nôtre. The eastern façade of the Louvre, realized (from the 1660s) according to the plans of C. Perrault (it is characteristic that the projects of J. L. Bernini and others in the Baroque style were rejected), became the programmatic work of classicism architecture. In the 1660s, L. Levo, A. Le Nôtre and C. Lebrun began to create the ensemble of Versailles, where the ideas of classicism were expressed with particular completeness. Since 1678, the construction of Versailles was led by J. Hardouin-Mansart; According to his designs, the palace was significantly expanded (wings were added), the central terrace was converted into a Mirror Gallery - the most representative part of the interior. He also built the Grand Trianon Palace and other buildings. The ensemble of Versailles is characterized by a rare stylistic integrity: even the jets of the fountains were combined into a static form, like a column, and the trees and bushes were trimmed in the form of geometric shapes. The symbolism of the ensemble is subordinated to the glorification of the “Sun King” Louis XIV, but its artistic and figurative basis was the apotheosis of reason, powerfully transforming the natural elements. At the same time, the emphasized decorativeness of the interiors justifies the use of the style term “baroque classicism” in relation to Versailles.

In the 2nd half of the 17th century, new planning techniques developed, providing for the organic combination of urban development with elements of the natural environment, the creation of open spaces that spatially merge with the street or embankment, ensemble solutions for the key elements of the urban structure (Place Louis the Great, now Vendôme, and Place des Victories ; architectural ensemble of the Invalides House, all by J. Hardouin-Mansart), triumphal entrance arches (Saint-Denis Gate designed by N. F. Blondel; all in Paris).

The traditions of classicism in France in the 18th century were almost uninterrupted, but in the 1st half of the century the Rococo style prevailed. In the mid-18th century, the principles of classicism were transformed in the spirit of Enlightenment aesthetics. In architecture, the appeal to “naturalness” put forward the requirement for constructive justification of order elements of the composition, in the interior - the need to develop a flexible layout for a comfortable residential building. The ideal environment for the house was a landscape (garden and park) environment. The rapid development of knowledge about Greek and Roman antiquity (excavations of Herculaneum, Pompeii, etc.) had a huge influence on the classicism of the 18th century; The works of I. I. Winkelman, I. V. Goethe, and F. Milizia made their contribution to the theory of classicism. In French classicism of the 18th century, new architectural types were defined: an elegant and intimate mansion (“hotel”), a ceremonial public building, an open square connecting the main thoroughfares of the city (Place Louis XV, now Place de la Concorde, in Paris, architect J. A. Gabriel; He also built the Petit Trianon Palace in Versailles Park, combining the harmonious clarity of forms with the lyrical sophistication of the design). J. J. Soufflot carried out his project for the Church of Sainte-Geneviève in Paris, drawing on the experience of classical architecture.

In the era preceding the French Revolution of the 18th century, a desire for austere simplicity and a bold search for the monumental geometricism of a new, orderless architecture appeared in architecture (C. N. Ledoux, E. L. Bullet, J. J. Lequeu). These searches (also marked by the influence of the architectural etchings of G.B. Piranesi) served as the starting point for the late phase of classicism - the French Empire style (1st third of the 19th century), in which magnificent representativeness was growing (C. Percier, P. F. L. Fontaine , J.F. Chalgrin).

English Palladianism of the 17th and 18th centuries is in many ways related to the system of classicism, and often merges with it. Orientation towards the classics (not only towards the ideas of A. Palladio, but also towards antiquity), strict and restrained expressiveness of plastically clear motifs are present in the work of I. Jones. After the “Great Fire” of 1666, K. Wren built the largest building in London - St. Paul's Cathedral, as well as over 50 parish churches, a number of buildings in Oxford, marked by the influence of ancient solutions. Extensive town planning plans were implemented by the mid-18th century in the regular development of Bath (J. Wood the Elder and J. Wood the Younger), London and Edinburgh (Adam brothers). The buildings of W. Chambers, W. Kent, and J. Payne are associated with the flourishing of country park estates. R. Adam was also inspired by Roman antiquity, but his version of classicism takes on a softer and lyrical appearance. Classicism in Great Britain was the most important component of the so-called Georgian style. At the beginning of the 19th century, features close to the Empire style appeared in English architecture (J. Soane, J. Nash).

In the 17th - early 18th centuries, classicism took shape in the architecture of Holland (J. van Kampen, P. Post), which gave rise to a particularly restrained version of it. Cross connections with French and Dutch classicism, as well as with the early Baroque, affected the short flowering of classicism in the architecture of Sweden in the late 17th and early 18th centuries (N. Tessin the Younger). In the 18th and early 19th centuries, classicism also established itself in Italy (G. Piermarini), Spain (J. de Villanueva), Poland (J. Kamsetzer, H. P. Aigner), and the USA (T. Jefferson, J. Hoban). The German architecture of classicism of the 18th - 1st half of the 19th century is characterized by the strict forms of the Palladian F. W. Erdmansdorff, the “heroic” Hellenism of K. G. Langhans, D. and F. Gilly, the historicism of L. von Klenze. In the work of K. F. Schinkel, the harsh monumentality of images is combined with the search for new functional solutions.

By the middle of the 19th century, the leading role of classicism was fading; it is being replaced by historical styles (see also Neo-Greek style, Eclecticism). At the same time, the artistic tradition of classicism comes to life in the neoclassicism of the 20th century.

The fine arts of classicism are normative; its figurative structure has clear signs of a social utopia. The iconography of classicism is dominated by ancient legends, heroic deeds, historical subjects, that is, interest in the fate of human communities, in the “anatomy of power.” Not content with simply “portraiting nature,” the artists of classicism strive to rise above the specific, individual - to the universally significant. The classicists defended their idea of ​​artistic truth, which did not coincide with the naturalism of Caravaggio or the small Dutch. The world of reasonable actions and bright feelings in the art of classicism rose above imperfect everyday life as the embodiment of the dream of the desired harmony of existence. Orientation towards a lofty ideal also gave rise to the choice of a “beautiful nature”. Classicism avoids the accidental, the deviant, the grotesque, the crude, the repulsive. The tectonic clarity of classicist architecture corresponds to the clear delineation of plans in sculpture and painting. The plastic art of classicism, as a rule, is designed for a fixed point of view and is characterized by smoothness of forms. The moment of movement in the poses of the figures usually does not violate their plastic isolation and calm statuesqueness. In classicist painting, the main elements of form are line and chiaroscuro; local colors clearly identify objects and landscape plans, which brings the spatial composition of the painting closer to the composition of the stage area.

The founder and greatest master of classicism of the 17th century was the French artist N. Poussin, whose paintings are marked by the sublimity of their philosophical and ethical content, the harmony of rhythmic structure and color.

The “ideal landscape” (N. Poussin, C. Lorrain, G. Duguay), which embodied the classicists’ dream of a “golden age” of humanity, was highly developed in the painting of classicism of the 17th century. The most significant masters of French classicism in sculpture of the 17th - early 18th centuries were P. Puget (heroic theme), F. Girardon (search for harmony and laconism of forms). In the 2nd half of the 18th century French sculptors again turned to socially significant themes and monumental decisions (J.B. Pigalle, M. Clodion, E.M. Falconet, J.A. Houdon). Civil pathos and lyricism were combined in the mythological painting of J. M. Vien and the decorative landscapes of Y. Robert. The painting of the so-called revolutionary classicism in France is represented by the works of J. L. David, historical and portrait images which are marked by courageous drama. In the late period of French classicism, painting, despite the appearance of individual major masters(J. O. D. Ingres), degenerates into official apologetic or salon art.

The international center of classicism of the 18th and early 19th centuries was Rome, where art was dominated by the academic tradition with a combination of nobility of forms and cold, abstract idealization, not uncommon for academicism (painters A.R. Mengs, J.A. Koch, V. Camuccini, sculptors A. As is B. Thorvaldsen). In the fine art of German classicism, contemplative in spirit, portraits of A. and V. Tischbein, mythological cardboards of A. J. Carstens, plastic works of I. G. Shadov, K. D. Rauch stand out; in decorative and applied arts - furniture by D. Roentgen. In Great Britain, the classicism of graphics and the sculpture of J. Flaxman are close, and in the decorative and applied arts - the ceramics of J. Wedgwood and the craftsmen of the Derby factory.

A. R. Mengs. "Perseus and Andromeda." 1774-79. Hermitage (St. Petersburg).

The heyday of classicism in Russia dates back to the last third of the 18th - 1st third of the 19th century, although the beginning of the 18th century was already marked by a creative appeal to the urban planning experience of French classicism (the principle of symmetrical axial planning systems in the construction of St. Petersburg). Russian classicism embodied a new historical stage in the flowering of Russian secular culture, unprecedented for Russia in scope and ideological content. Early Russian classicism in architecture (1760-70s; J. B. Vallin-Delamot, A. F. Kokorinov, Yu. M. Felten, K. I. Blank, A. Rinaldi) still retains the plastic richness and dynamics of forms inherent in Baroque and Rococo.

The architects of the mature period of classicism (1770-90s; V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov, I.E. Starov) created classical types of metropolitan palace-estate and comfortable residential building, which became models in the widespread construction of country noble estates and in the new, ceremonial development of cities. The art of the ensemble in country park estates is a major contribution of Russian classicism to world artistic culture. In estate construction, the Russian version of Palladianism arose (N. A. Lvov), and a new type of chamber palace emerged (C. Cameron, J. Quarenghi). A feature of Russian classicism is the unprecedented scale of state urban planning: regular plans for more than 400 cities were developed, ensembles of centers of Kaluga, Kostroma, Poltava, Tver, Yaroslavl, etc. were formed; the practice of “regulating” urban plans, as a rule, consistently combined the principles of classicism with the historically established planning structure of the old Russian city. The turn of the 18th-19th centuries was marked by major urban development achievements in both capitals. A grandiose ensemble of the center of St. Petersburg took shape (A. N. Voronikhin, A. D. Zakharov, J. F. Thomas de Thomon, and later K. I. Rossi). “Classical Moscow” was formed on different urban planning principles, which was built up during its restoration after the fire of 1812 with small mansions with cozy interiors. The principles of regularity here were consistently subordinated to the general pictorial freedom of the spatial structure of the city. The most prominent architects of late Moscow classicism are D. I. Gilardi, O. I. Bove, A. G. Grigoriev. The buildings of the 1st third of the 19th century belong to the Russian Empire style (sometimes called Alexander classicism).

In the fine arts, the development of Russian classicism is closely connected with the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (founded in 1757). The sculpture is represented by “heroic” monumental and decorative sculpture, forming a finely thought-out synthesis with architecture, monuments filled with civic pathos, tombstones imbued with elegiac enlightenment, and easel sculpture (I. P. Prokofiev, F. G. Gordeev, M. I. Kozlovsky, I. P. Martos, F. F. Shchedrin, V. I. Demut-Malinovsky, S. S. Pimenov, I. I. Terebenev). In painting, classicism was most clearly manifested in works of the historical and mythological genre (A. P. Losenko, G. I. Ugryumov, I. A. Akimov, A. I. Ivanov, A. E. Egorov, V. K. Shebuev, early A. A. Ivanov; in scenography - in the works of P. di G. Gonzago). Some features of classicism are also inherent in the sculptural portraits of F. I. Shubin, in painting - in the portraits of D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky, and in the landscapes of F. M. Matveev. In the decorative and applied arts of Russian classicism, artistic modeling and carved decor in architecture, bronze products, cast iron, porcelain, crystal, furniture, damask fabrics, etc. stand out.

A. I. Kaplun; Yu. K. Zolotov (European fine arts).

Theater. The formation of theatrical classicism began in France in the 1630s. The activating and organizing role in this process belonged to literature, thanks to which theater established itself among the “high” arts. The French saw examples of theatrical art in the Italian “learned theater” of the Renaissance. Since court society was the setter of tastes and cultural values, the stage style was also influenced by court ceremonies and festivals, ballets, and receptions. The principles of theatrical classicism were developed on the Parisian stage: in the Marais theater headed by G. Mondori (1634), in the Palais Cardinal (1641, from 1642 Palais Royal), built by Cardinal Richelieu, whose structure met the high requirements of Italian stage technology ; in the 1640s, the Burgundian Hotel became the site of theatrical classicism. Simultaneous decoration gradually, by the middle of the 17th century, was replaced by picturesque and single perspective decoration (palace, temple, house, etc.); a curtain appeared that rose and fell at the beginning and end of the performance. The scene was framed like a painting. The game took place only on the proscenium; the performance was centered on several protagonist figures. The architectural backdrop, a single location, the combination of acting and pictorial plans, and the overall three-dimensional mise-en-scène contributed to the creation of the illusion of verisimilitude. In 17th-century stage classicism, there was the concept of the “fourth wall.” “He acts like this,” F. E. a’Aubignac wrote about the actor (The Practice of the Theatre, 1657), “as if the audience did not exist at all: his characters act and speak as if they were really kings, and not Mondori and Bellerose, as if they were in Horace's palace in Rome, and not in the Burgundy Hotel in Paris, and as if they were seen and heard only by those present on the stage (i.e. in the place depicted)."

In the high tragedy of classicism (P. Corneille, J. Racine), the dynamics, entertainment and adventure plots of A. Hardy’s plays (which made up the repertoire of the first permanent French troupe of V. Leconte in the 1st third of the 17th century) were replaced by statics and in-depth attention to the spiritual the world of the hero, the motives of his behavior. The new dramaturgy demanded changes in the performing arts. The actor became the embodiment of the ethical and aesthetic ideal of the era, creating with his performance a close-up portrait of his contemporary; his costume, stylized as antiquity, corresponded to modern fashion, his plasticity was subject to the requirements of nobility and grace. The actor had to have the pathos of an orator, a sense of rhythm, musicality (for the actress M. Chanmele, J. Racine wrote notes over the lines of the role), the art of eloquent gesture, the skills of a dancer, even physical strength. The dramaturgy of classicism contributed to the emergence of a school of stage recitation, which united the entire set of performing techniques (reading, gesture, facial expressions) and became the main means of expression of the French actor. A. Vitez called the declamation of the 17th century “prosodic architecture.” The performance was built in the logical interaction of monologues. With the help of words, the technique of arousing emotions and controlling them was practiced; The success of the performance depended on the strength of the voice, its sonority, timbre, mastery of colors and intonations.

“Andromache” by J. Racine at the Burgundy Hotel. Engraving by F. Chauveau. 1667.

The division of theatrical genres into “high” (tragedy in the Burgundian hotel) and “low” (comedy in the Palais-Royal of the time of Moliere), the emergence of the role was consolidated hierarchical structure theater of classicism. Remaining within the boundaries of “ennobled” nature, the design of the performance and the outlines of the image were determined by the individuality of the largest actors: the manner of recitation of J. Floridor was more natural than that of the excessively posing Bellerose; M. Chanmele was characterized by a sonorous and melodious “recitation,” and Montfleury had no equal in the affects of passion. The subsequent understanding of the canon of theatrical classicism, which consisted of standard gestures (surprise was depicted with hands raised to shoulder level and palms facing the audience; disgust - with the head turned to the right and hands pushing away the object of contempt, etc.) , refers to the era of decline and degeneration of style.

In the 18th century, despite the decisive departure of the theater towards educational democracy, the actors of the Comédie Française A. Lecouvreur, M. Baron, A. L. Lequesne, Dumenil, Clairon, L. Preville developed the style of stage classicism in accordance with tastes and requests era. They deviated from the classicist norms of recitation, reformed the costume and made attempts to direct the performance, creating an acting ensemble. At the beginning of the 19th century, at the height of the struggle of the romantics with the tradition of the “court” theater, F. J. Talma, M. J. Georges, Mars proved the viability of the classicist repertoire and performing style, and in the work of Rachelle, classicism in the romantic era again acquired the meaning of “high "and sought-after style. The traditions of classicism continued to influence the theatrical culture of France at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries and even later. The combination of classicism and modernist styles is characteristic of the play of J. Mounet-Sully, S. Bernard, B. C. Coquelin. In the 20th century, French director's theater became closer to the European one, and the stage style lost its national specificity. However, significant events in French theater The 20th century correlates with the traditions of classicism: performances by J. Copo, J. L. Barrault, L. Jouvet, J. Vilar, Vitez’s experiments with the classics of the 17th century, productions by R. Planchon, J. Desart, etc.

Having lost the importance of the dominant style in France in the 18th century, classicism found successors in other European countries. J. W. Goethe consistently introduced the principles of classicism into the Weimar theater he led. Actress and entrepreneur F. K. Neuber and actor K. Eckhoff in Germany, English actors T. Betterton, J. Quinn, J. Kemble, S. Siddons promoted classicism, but their efforts, despite personal creative achievements, turned out to be ineffective and, were ultimately rejected. Stage classicism became the object of pan-European controversy and, thanks to German and then Russian theater theorists, received the definition of “false-classical theater.”

In Russia, the classicist style flourished at the beginning of the 19th century in the works of A. S. Yakovlev and E. S. Semyonova, and later manifested itself in the achievements of the St. Petersburg theater school in the person of V. V. Samoilov (see Samoilovs), V. A. Karatygin (see Karatygins), then Yu. M. Yuryev.

E. I. Gorfunkel.

Music. The term “classicism” in relation to music does not imply an orientation towards ancient examples (only monuments of ancient Greek musical theory were known and studied), but a series of reforms designed to put an end to the remnants of the Baroque style in musical theater. Classicist and baroque tendencies were contradictory combined in French musical tragedy of the 2nd half of the 17th - 1st half of the 18th century (the creative collaboration of librettist F. Kino and composer J.B. Lully, operas and opera-ballets of J.F. Rameau) and in Italian opera seria, which took a leading position among the musical and dramatic genres of the 18th century (in Italy, England, Austria, Germany, Russia). The heyday of French musical tragedy occurred at the beginning of the crisis of absolutism, when the ideals of heroism and citizenship during the struggle for a national state were replaced by a spirit of festivity and ceremonial officialdom, a craving for luxury and refined hedonism. The severity of the conflict of feeling and duty typical of classicism in the context of a mythological or knightly-legendary plot of a musical tragedy decreased (especially in comparison with the tragedy in drama theater). Associated with the norms of classicism are the requirements of genre purity (the absence of comedic and everyday episodes), unity of action (often also of place and time), and a “classical” 5-act composition (often with a prologue). The central position in musical dramaturgy is occupied by recitative - the element closest to rationalistic verbal and conceptual logic. In the intonation sphere, declamatory and pathetic formulas associated with natural human speech (interrogatives, imperatives, etc.) predominate; at the same time, rhetorical and symbolic figures characteristic of baroque opera are excluded. Extensive choral and ballet scenes with fantastic and pastoral-idyllic themes, a general orientation towards entertainment and entertainment (which eventually became dominant) were more consistent with the traditions of the Baroque than with the principles of classicism.

Traditional for Italy were the cultivation of singing virtuosity and the development of decorative elements inherent in the opera seria genre. In line with the demands of classicism put forward by some representatives of the Roman Academy "Arcadia", the northern Italian librettists of the early 18th century (F. Silvani, G. Frigimelica-Roberti, A. Zeno, P. Pariati, A. Salvi, A. Piovene) were expelled from serious opera has comic and everyday episodes, plot motifs associated with the intervention of supernatural or fantastic forces; the range of subjects was limited to historical and historical-legendary ones; moral and ethical issues were brought to the fore. At the center of the artistic concept of the early opera seria is the sublime heroic image of the monarch, or less often statesman, courtier, epic hero, demonstrating positive traits ideal personality: wisdom, tolerance, generosity, devotion to duty, heroic enthusiasm. The 3-act structure traditional for Italian opera was preserved (5-act dramas remained experiments), but the number of characters was reduced, and intonation expressive means, overture and aria forms, and the structure of vocal parts were standardized in the music. A type of dramaturgy entirely subordinated to musical tasks was developed (from the 1720s) by P. Metastasio, with whose name the pinnacle stage in the history of opera seria is associated. In his stories, the classicist pathos is noticeably weakened. A conflict situation, as a rule, arises and deepens due to the protracted “misconception” of the main characters, and not due to a real contradiction of their interests or principles. However, a special predilection for the idealized expression of feeling, for the noble impulses of the human soul, albeit far from strict rational justification, ensured the exceptional popularity of Metastasio's libretto for more than half a century.

The culmination of the development of musical classicism of the Enlightenment era (in the 1760-70s) was the creative collaboration of K. V. Gluck and librettist R. Calzabigi. In Gluck's operas and ballets, classicist tendencies were expressed in emphasized attention to ethical problems, the development of ideas about heroism and generosity (in the musical dramas of the Parisian period - in a direct appeal to the theme of duty and feelings). The norms of classicism also corresponded to genre purity, the desire for maximum concentration of action, reduced to almost one dramatic collision, strict selection of expressive means in accordance with the tasks of a specific dramatic situation, the utmost limitation of the decorative element, and virtuosity in singing. The educational nature of the interpretation of images was reflected in the interweaving of the noble qualities inherent in classicist heroes with naturalness and freedom of expression of feelings, reflecting the influence of sentimentalism.

In the 1780-90s, the tendencies of revolutionary classicism, reflecting the ideals of the French Revolution of the 18th century, found expression in French musical theater. Genetically related to the previous stage and represented mainly by the generation of composers who followed Gluck’s operatic reform (E. Megul, L. Cherubini), revolutionary classicism emphasized, first of all, the civic, tyrant-fighting pathos previously characteristic of the tragedies of P. Corneille and Voltaire. Unlike works of the 1760s and 70s, in which resolution tragic conflict was difficult to achieve and required the intervention of external forces (the tradition of “deus ex machina” - Latin “god from the machine”), the ending through a heroic act (refusal of obedience, protest, often an act of retribution, the murder of a tyrant) became characteristic of the works of the 1780-1790s etc.), creating a bright and effective release of tension. This type of dramaturgy formed the basis of the “rescue opera” genre, which appeared in the 1790s at the intersection of the traditions of classicist opera and realistic bourgeois drama.

In Russia, in musical theater, original manifestations of classicism are rare (the opera “Cephalus and Procris” by F. Araya, the melodrama “Orpheus” by E. I. Fomin, music by O. A. Kozlovsky for the tragedies of V. A. Ozerov, A. A. Shakhovsky and A. N. Gruzintseva).

In relation to comic opera, as well as instrumental and vocal music of the 18th century, not associated with theatrical action, the term “classicism” is used to a large extent conditionally. It is sometimes used in an extended sense to denote the initial stage of the classical-romantic era, the gallant and classic styles(see article Vienna classical school, Classics in music), in particular in order to avoid judgment (for example, when translating the German term “Klassik” or in the expression “Russian classicism”, extended to all Russian music of the 2nd half of the 18th - early 19th centuries).

In the 19th century, classicism in musical theater gave way to romanticism, although certain features of classicist aesthetics were sporadically revived (by G. Spontini, G. Berlioz, S. I. Taneyev, etc.). In the 20th century, classicist artistic principles were revived again in neoclassicism.

P. V. Lutsker.

Lit.: General work. Zeitler R. Klassizismus und Utopia. Stockh., 1954; Peyre N. Qu’est-ce que le classicisme? R., 1965; Bray R. La formation de la doctrine classique en France. R., 1966; Renaissance. Baroque. Classicism. The problem of styles in Western European art of the 15th-17th centuries. M., 1966; Tapie V. L. Baroque et classicisme. 2 ed. R., 1972; Benac N. Le classicisme. R., 1974; Zolotov Yu. K. Moral foundations of action in French classicism of the 17th century. // News of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Ser. literature and language. 1988. T. 47. No. 3; Zuber R., Cuénin M. Le classicisme. R., 1998. Literature. Vipper Yu. B. Formation of classicism in French poetry of the early 17th century. M., 1967; Oblomievsky D. D. French classicism. M., 1968; Serman I.Z. Russian classicism: Poetry. Drama. Satire. L., 1973; Morozov A. A. The fate of Russian classicism // Russian literature. 1974. No. 1; Jones T. V., Nicol V. Neo-classical dramatic criticism. 1560-1770. Camb., 1976; Moskvicheva G.V. Russian classicism. M., 1978; Literary manifestos of Western European classicists. M., 1980; Averintsev S. S. Ancient Greek poetics and world literature // Poetics ancient Greek literature. M., 1981; Russian and Western European classicism. Prose. M., 1982; L'Antiquité gréco-romaine vue par le siècle des lumières / Éd. R. Chevallier. Tours, 1987; Klassik im Vergleich. Normativität und Historizität europäischer Klassiken. Stuttg.; Weimar, 1993; Pumpyansky L.V. On the history of Russian classicism // Pumpyansky L.V. Classical tradition . M., 2000; Génétiot A. Le classicisme. R., 2005; Smirnov A. A. Literary theory of Russian classicism. M., 2007. Architecture and fine arts. Gnedich P.P. History of Arts.. M., 1907. T. 3; aka. History of art. Western European Baroque and Classicism. M., 2005; Brunov N.I. Palaces of France in the 17th and 18th centuries. M., 1938; Blunt A. François Mansart and the origins of French classical architecture. L., 1941; idem. Art and architecture in France. 1500 to 1700. 5th ed. New Haven, 1999; Hautecoeur L. Histoire de l’architecture classique en France. R., 1943-1957. Vol. 1-7; Kaufmann E. Architecture in the age of Reason. Camb. (Mass.), 1955; Rowland V. The classical tradition in western art. Camb. (Mass.), 1963; Kovalenskaya N. N. Russian classicism. M., 1964; Vermeule S. S. European art and the classical past. Camb. (Mass.), 1964; Rotenberg E.I. Western European art of the 17th century. M., 1971; aka. Western European painting of the 17th century. Thematic principles. M., 1989; Nikolaev E.V. Classical Moscow. M., 1975; Greenhalgh M. The classical tradition in art. L., 1978; Fleming J. R. Adam and his circle, in Edinburgh and Rome. 2nd ed. L., 1978; Yakimovich A.K. Classicism of the Poussin era. Fundamentals and principles // Soviet art history’78. M., 1979. Issue. 1; Zolotov Yu. K. Poussin and the freethinkers // Ibid. M., 1979. Issue. 2; Summerson J. The classical language of architecture. L., 1980; Gnudi S. L’ideale classico: saggi sulla tradizione classica nella pittura del Cinquecento e del Seicento. Bologna, 1981; Howard S. Antiquity restored: essays on the afterlife of the antique. Vienna, 1990; The French Academy: classicism and its antagonists / Ed. J. Hargrove. Newark; L., 1990; Arkin D. E. Images of architecture and images of sculpture. M., 1990; Daniel S. M. European classicism. St. Petersburg, 2003; Karev A. Classicism in Russian painting. M., 2003; Bedretdinova L. Catherine's classicism. M., 2008. Theater. Celler L. Les décors, les costumes et la mise en scène au XVIIe siècle, 1615-1680. R., 1869. Gen., 1970; Mancius K. Moliere. Theater, audience, actors of his time. M., 1922; Mongredien G. Les grands comédiens du XVIIe siècle. R., 1927; Fuchs M. La vie théâtrale en province au XVIIe siècle. R., 1933; About the theater. Sat. articles. L.; M., 1940; Kemodle G. R. From art to theater. Chi., 1944; Blanchart R. Histoire de la mise en scène. R., 1948; Vilar J. About the theatrical tradition. M., 1956; History of Western European theater: In 8 vols. M., 1956-1988; Velehova N. In disputes about style. M., 1963; Boyadzhiev G. N. The Art of Classicism // Questions of Literature. 1965. No. 10; Leclerc G. Les grandes aventures du théâtre. R., 1968; Mints N.V. Theatrical collections of France. M., 1989; Gitelman L. I. Foreign acting art of the 19th century. St. Petersburg, 2002; History of foreign theater. St. Petersburg, 2005.

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Classicism (from Latin classicus - exemplary) is the artistic style of European art of the 17th–19th centuries, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to ancient art as the highest example and reliance on the traditions of the High Renaissance. The art of classicism reflected the ideas of the harmonious structure of society, but in many ways lost them in comparison with the culture of the Renaissance. Conflicts between personality and society, ideal and reality, feelings and reason testify to the complexity of the art of classicism. The artistic forms of classicism are characterized by strict organization, balance, clarity and harmony of images.

Classicism is associated with the Enlightenment and was based on the ideas of philosophical rationalism, on ideas about the rational laws of the world. In accordance with the sublime ethical ideas and educational program of art, the aesthetics of classicism established a hierarchy of genres - “high” (tragedy, epic, ode, history, mythology, religious painting, etc.) and “low” (comedy, satire, fable, genre painting, etc.) etc.). In literature (tragedies by P. Corneille, J. Racine, Voltaire, comedies by Molière, the poem “The Art of Poetry” and satires by N. Boileau, fables by J. Lafontaine, prose by F. La Rochefoucauld, J. Labruyère in France, works of the Weimar period by I.V. . Goethe and F. Schiller in Germany, odes of M.V. Lomonosov and G.R. Derzhavin, tragedies of A.P. Sumarokov and Ya.B. Knyazhnin in Russia) significant ethical conflicts and normative typified images play a leading role. For theatrical art (Mondori, Duparc, M. Chanmele, A.L. Leken, F.J. Talma, Rachel in France, F.C. Neuber in Germany, F.G. Volkov, I.A. Dmitrevsky in Russia) Characterized by a solemn, static structure of performances and measured reading of poetry.

The main features of Russian classicism: appeal to the images and forms of ancient art; heroes are clearly divided into positive and negative; the plot is based, as a rule, on a love triangle: the heroine is the hero-lover, the second lover; at the end of the classical comedy, vice is always punished, and good triumphs; the principle of three unities: time (the action lasts no more than a day), place, action. For example, we can cite Fonvizin’s comedy “The Minor.” In this comedy, Fonvizin tries to implement the main idea of ​​classicism - to re-educate the world with a reasonable word. Positive heroes talk a lot about morality, life at court, and the duty of a nobleman. Negative characters become an illustration of inappropriate behavior. Behind the clash of personal interests, the social positions of the heroes are visible.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism coming from the philosophy of Descartes. Piece of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Classicism is interested only in the eternal, the unchangeable - in every phenomenon it strives to recognize only the essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism as an art movement originated in France at the end of the 17th century. In his treatise “Poetic Art” Boileau outlined the basic principles of this literary movement. He believed that a literary work is created not by feelings, but by reason; Classicism in general is characterized by a cult of reason, caused by the conviction that only an enlightened monarchy, absolute power, can change life for the better. Just as in the state there must be a strict and clear hierarchy of all branches of power, so in literature (and in art) everything must be subject to uniform rules and strict order.

In Latin, classicus means exemplary or first-class. The model for classic writers was ancient culture and literature. The French classics, having studied the poetics of Aristotle, determined the rules for their works, which they subsequently adhered to, and this became the basis for the formation of the main genres of classicism.

Classification of genres in classicism

Classicism is characterized by a strict division of literary genres into high and low.

• Ode is a work glorifying and praising in poetic form;
• Tragedy is a dramatic work with a harsh ending;
• A heroic epic is a narrative account of past events that shows the whole picture of time.

The heroes of such works could only be great people: kings, princes, generals, nobles who devote their lives to serving the fatherland. What comes first for them is not personal feelings, but civic duty.

Low genres:

• Comedy is a dramatic work that ridicules the vices of society or a person;
• Satire is a type of comedy distinguished by its harshness of storytelling;
• A fable is a satirical work of an instructive nature.

The heroes of these works were not only representatives of the noble class, but also commoners and servants.

Each genre had its own rules of writing, its own style (the theory of three styles), mixing of high and low, tragic and comic was not allowed.

Students of the French classics, diligently adopting their standards, spread classicism throughout Europe. The most prominent foreign representatives are: Moliere, Voltaire, Milton, Corneille, etc.

Main features of classicism

• Classical authors drew inspiration from the literature and art of ancient times, from the works of Horace and Aristotle, so the basis was imitation of nature.
• The works were built on the principles of rationalism. Clarity, clarity and consistency are also characteristic features.
• The construction of images is determined by the general features of a time or era. Thus, each character is a thoughtful personification of a time period or segment of society.
• A clear division of heroes into positive and negative. Each hero embodies one basic trait: nobility, wisdom or stinginess, meanness. Often the heroes have “speaking” surnames: Pravdin, Skotinin.
• Strict adherence to the hierarchy of genres. Compliance of style with genre, avoiding mixing of different styles.
• Compliance with the rule of the “three unities”: place, time and action. All events take place in one place. The unity of time means that all events fit into a period of no more than a day. And the action - the plot was limited to one line, one problem that was discussed.

Features of Russian classicism

Like European, Russian classicism adhered to the basic rules of direction. However, he did not simply become a follower of Western classicism - complemented by his national spirit of originality, Russian classicism became an independent movement in fiction with features and peculiarities inherent only to it:

Satirical direction - such genres as comedy, fable and satire, telling about specific phenomena of Russian life (Kantemir’s satires, for example, “On those who blaspheme the teaching. To your mind”, Krylov’s fables);

• Classicist authors, instead of antiquity, took as a basis national-historical images of Russia (the tragedies of Sumarokov “Dmitry the Pretender”, “Mstislav”, Knyazhnin’s “Rosslav”, “Vadim Novgorodsky”);
• The presence of patriotic pathos in all works of this time;
• High level of development of ode as a separate genre (odes of Lomonosov, Derzhavin).

The founder of Russian classicism is considered to be A.D. Kantemir with his famous satires, which had political overtones and more than once became the cause of heated debates.

V.K. Trediakovsky did not particularly distinguish himself in the artistry of his works, but he did a lot of work in the literary direction in general. He is the author of such concepts as “prose” and “poetry”. It was he who conditionally divided the works into two parts and was able to give them definitions and substantiate the system of syllabic-tonic versification.

A.P. Sumarokov is considered the founder of the dramaturgy of Russian classicism. He is considered the “father of Russian theater” and the creator of the national theatrical repertoire of that time.

One of the most prominent representatives of Russian classicism is M. V. Lomonosov. In addition to his enormous scientific contribution, Mikhail Vasilyevich carried out a reform of the Russian language and created the doctrine of the “three calms”.

D.I. Fonvizin is considered the creator of Russian everyday comedy. His works “The Brigadier” and “The Minor” have not yet lost their significance and are studied in the school curriculum.

G. R. Derzhavin is one of the last major representatives of Russian classicism. He was able to incorporate vernacular language into strict rules in his works, thereby expanding the scope of classicism. He is also considered the first Russian poet.

Main periods of Russian classicism

There are several divisions into periods of Russian classicism, but, generalizing, they can be reduced to the main three:

1. 90 years of the 17th century – 20 years of the 18th century. Also called the Peter the Great era. During this period, there were no Russian works as such, but translated literature was actively developing. This is where Russian classicism originates as a consequence of reading translated works from Europe. (F. Prokopovich)
2. 30-50 years of the 17th century - a bright surge of classicism. A clear genre formation is taking place, as well as reforms in the Russian language and versification. (V.K. Trediakovsky, A.P. Sumarokov, M.V. Lomonosov)
3. The 60-90s of the 18th century are also called the Catherine's era or the Age of Enlightenment. Classicism is the main one, but at the same time the emergence of sentimentalism was already observed. (D. I. Fonvizin, G. R. Derzhavin, N. M. Karamzin).