After the completion of the main construction work in Versailles, at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries, Andre Le Nôtre began active work on the redevelopment of Paris. He laid out the layout of the Tuileries Park, clearly fixing the central axis on the continuation of the longitudinal axis of the Louvre ensemble. After Le Nôtre, the Louvre was finally rebuilt and the Place de la Concorde was created. The major axis of Paris gave a completely different interpretation of the city, meeting the requirements of greatness, grandeur and pomp. The composition of open urban spaces and the system of architecturally designed streets and squares became the determining factor in the planning of Paris. The clarity of the geometric pattern of streets and squares linked into a single whole will for many years become a criterion for assessing the perfection of the city plan and the skill of the city planner. Many cities around the world would subsequently experience the influence of the classic Parisian model.

A new understanding of the city as an object of architectural influence on humans finds clear expression in the work on urban ensembles. In the process of their construction, the main and fundamental principles of classicism urban planning were outlined - free development in space and an organic connection with the environment. Overcoming the chaos of urban development, architects sought to create ensembles designed for free and unobstructed views.

Renaissance dreams of creating an “ideal city” were embodied in the formation of a new type of square, the boundaries of which were no longer the facades of certain buildings, but the space of adjacent streets and neighborhoods, parks or gardens, and the river embankment. Architecture strives to connect in a certain ensemble unity not only buildings directly adjacent to each other, but also very distant points of the city.

Second half of the 18th century. and the first third of the 19th century. in France mark a new stage in the development of classicism and its spread in European countries - neoclassicism. After the Great French Revolution and the Patriotic War of 1812, new priorities appeared in urban planning, in tune with the spirit of their time. They found their most vivid expression in the Empire style. It was characterized by the following features: ceremonial pathos of imperial grandeur, monumentality, appeal to the art of imperial Rome and Ancient Egypt, and the use of attributes of Roman military history as the main decorative motifs.

The essence of the new artistic style was very accurately conveyed in the significant words of Napoleon Bonaparte:

“I love power, but as an artist... I love it to extract sounds, chords, harmony from it.”

Empire style became the personification of the political power and military glory of Napoleon, and served as a unique manifestation of his cult. The new ideology fully corresponded to the political interests and artistic tastes of the new time. Large architectural ensembles of open squares, wide streets and avenues were created everywhere, bridges, monuments and public buildings were erected, demonstrating the imperial grandeur and power of power.

For example, the Austerlitz Bridge commemorated Napoleon's great battle and was built from Bastille stones. At Place Carrousel was built triumphal arch in honor of the victory at Austerlitz. Two squares (Concord and Stars), located at a considerable distance from each other, were connected by architectural perspectives.

Church of Saint Genevieve, erected by J. J. Soufflot, became the Pantheon - the resting place of the great people of France. One of the most spectacular monuments of that time is the column of the Grand Army on Place Vendôme. Likened to the ancient Roman column of Trajan, it was supposed, according to the plans of the architects J. Gondoin and J. B. Leper, to express the spirit of the New Empire and Napoleon’s thirst for greatness.

In the bright interior decoration of palaces and public buildings, solemnity and stately pomp were especially highly valued; their decor was often overloaded with military paraphernalia. The dominant motifs were contrasting combinations of colors, elements of Roman and Egyptian ornaments: eagles, griffins, urns, wreaths, torches, grotesques. The Empire style manifested itself most clearly in the interiors of the imperial residences of the Louvre and Malmaison.

The era of Napoleon Bonaparte ended by 1815, and very soon they began to actively eradicate its ideology and tastes. From the “disappeared like a dream” Empire, all that remained were works of art in the Empire style, clearly demonstrating its former greatness.

Questions and tasks

1.Why can Versailles be considered an outstanding work?

How the urban planning ideas of 18th century classicism found their practical embodiment in the architectural ensembles of Paris, for example the Place de la Concorde? What distinguishes it from the Italian baroque squares of Rome in the 17th century, such as Piazza del Popolo (see p. 74)?

2. What is the expression of the connection between Baroque and classicism architecture? What ideas did classicism inherit from Baroque?

3. What are the historical background for the emergence of the Empire style? What new ideas of his time did he strive to express in works of art? What artistic principles does he rely on?

Creative workshop

1. Give your classmates a correspondence tour of Versailles. To prepare it, you can use video materials from the Internet. The parks of Versailles and Peterhof are often compared. What do you think are the grounds for such comparisons?

2. Try to compare the image of the “ideal city” of the Renaissance with the classic ensembles of Paris (St. Petersburg or its suburbs).

3. Compare the design of the interior decoration (interiors) of the gallery of Francis I in Fontainebleau and the Gallery of Mirrors at Versailles.

4. Get acquainted with the paintings of the Russian artist A. N. Benois (1870-1960) from the series “Versailles. The King's Walk" (see p. 74). How do they convey the general atmosphere of the court life of the French king Louis XIV? Why can they be considered as unique paintings-symbols?

Topics of projects, abstracts or messages

“Formation of classicism in French architecture of the 17th-18th centuries”; “Versailles as a model of harmony and beauty of the world”; “A walk through Versailles: the connection between the composition of the palace and the layout of the park”; “Masterpieces of Western European Classicism Architecture”; “Napoleonic Empire in the architecture of France”; “Versailles and Peterhof: comparative experience”; “Artistic discoveries in the architectural ensembles of Paris”; “The squares of Paris and the development of the principles of regular city planning”; “Clarity of composition and balance of volumes of the Cathedral of the Invalides in Paris”; “Place de la Concorde - a new stage in the development of urban planning ideas of classicism”; “The harsh expressiveness of the volumes and the sparse decor of the Church of Saint Genevieve (Pantheon) by J. Soufflot”; “Features of classicism in the architecture of Western European countries”; "Outstanding architects of Western European classicism."

Books for further reading

Arkin D. E. Images of architecture and images of sculpture. M., 1990. Kantor A. M. et al. Art of the 18th century. M., 1977. (Small history of art).

Classicism and Romanticism: Architecture. Sculpture. Painting. Drawing / ed. R. Toman. M., 2000.

Kozhina E. F. Art of France in the 18th century. L., 1971.

LenotreJ. Daily life of Versailles under the kings. M., 2003.

Miretskaya N.V., Miretskaya E.V., Shakirova I.P. Culture of the Enlightenment. M., 1996.

Watkin D. History of Western European architecture. M., 1999. Fedotova E.D. Napoleonic Empire style. M., 2008.

PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 2

Federal Agency for Railway Transport

Siberian State Transport University

Department of Philosophy

ARTISTIC IMAGES OF THE RENAISSANCE ERA

Essay

In the discipline "Culturology"

Head Developed

Professor student gr. D-111

Bystrova A.N. ___________ Kamyshova E.V.

(signature) (signature)

08.12.2012

(date of inspection) (date of submission for inspection)

year 2012

Introduction

The Renaissance is considered one of the brightest periods in the history of the development of European culture. We can say that the Renaissance is an entire cultural era in the process of transition from the Middle Ages to modern times, during which a cultural revolution (turn, shift) took place. Fundamental changes are associated with the elimination of mythology.

Despite the origin of the term Renaissance (French Renaissance, “renaissance”), there was not and could not be a revival of antiquity. A person cannot return to his past. The Renaissance, using the lessons of antiquity, introduced innovations. He did not bring back to life all ancient genres, but only those that were characteristic of the aspirations of his time and culture. The Renaissance combined a new reading of antiquity with a new reading of Christianity.

The relevance of the chosen topic is due to the connection between the modern era and the Renaissance - this is a revolution, first of all, in the value system, in the assessment of all things and the attitude towards it.

The main goal of the work is to show the fundamental changes that have occurred in the worldview of the greatest figures of the era in question.

1. Renaissance culture

XIII - XVI The centuries were a time of great change in economics, politics and culture. The rapid growth of cities and the development of crafts, and later the transition to manufacturing, transformed the appearance of medieval Europe.

Cities began to come to the fore. Not long before this, the most powerful forces of the medieval world - the empire and the papacy - were experiencing a deep crisis. IN XVI century, the disintegrating Holy Roman Empire of the German nation became the scene of the first two anti-feudal revolutions - the Great Peasant War in Germany and the Dutch Uprising.

The transitional nature of the era, the process of liberation from medieval ways taking place in all areas of life, at the same time, the still underdevelopment of emerging capitalist relations could not but affect the characteristics of artistic culture and aesthetic thought of that time.

According to A.V. Stepanov, all changes in the life of society were accompanied by a broad renewal of culture - the flourishing of natural and exact sciences, literature in national languages, and fine arts. Originating in the cities of Italy, this renewal then spread to other European countries. The author believes that after the advent of printing, unprecedented opportunities opened up for the dissemination of literary and scientific works, and more regular and closer communication between countries contributed to the penetration of new artistic movements.

This did not mean that the Middle Ages retreated to new trends: traditional ideas were preserved in the mass consciousness. The church resisted new ideas using a medieval means - the Inquisition. The idea of ​​human freedom continued to exist in a society divided into classes. The feudal form of peasant dependence did not completely disappear, and in some countries (Germany, Central Europe) there was a return to serfdom. The feudal system showed quite great resilience. Each European country lived it in its own way and within its own chronological framework. Capitalism existed as a way of life for a long time, covering only part of production in both the city and the countryside. However, patriarchal medieval slowness began to recede into the past.

The Great Geographical Discoveries played a huge role in this breakthrough. For example, in 1492 H. Columbus, in search of a route to India, crossed the Atlantic Ocean and landed at the Bahamas, discovering a new continent - America. In 1498 The Spanish explorer Vasco da Gama, having circumnavigated Africa, successfully brought his ships to the shores of India. WITH XVI V. Europeans penetrate into China and Japan, about which they previously had only the vaguest idea. In 1510 the conquest of America began. IN XVII V. Australia was discovered. The idea of ​​the shape of the earth has changed: F. Magellan's trip around the world confirmed the guess that it has the shape of a ball.

Contempt for everything earthly is now replaced by a greedy interest in the real world, in man, in the consciousness of the beauty and greatness of nature, which could be proven by analyzing the cultural monuments of the Renaissance. The undisputed primacy of theology over science in the Middle Ages was shaken by faith in the unlimited possibilities of the human mind, which became the highest standard of truth. Emphasizing an interest in the human as opposed to the divine, representatives of the new secular intelligentsia called themselves humanists, deriving this word from the concept “ studio humanitanis ", which meant the study of everything related to human nature and his spiritual world.

The works and art of the Renaissance became characterized by the idea of ​​a free being with unlimited creative possibilities. It is associated with anthropocentrism in the aesthetics of the Renaissance and the understanding of the beautiful, sublime, and heroic. The principle of a beautiful, artistically creative human personality was combined among the theoreticians of the Renaissance with an attempt to mathematically calculate all kinds of proportions, symmetry, and perspective.

Aesthetic and artistic thinking of this era is for the first time based on human perception as such and on a sensually real picture of the world. What is also striking here is the subjectivist-individualistic thirst for life sensations, regardless of their religious and moral interpretation, although the latter, in principle, is not denied. The aesthetics of the Renaissance orients art towards imitation of nature. However, in the first place here is not so much nature as the artist, who in his creative activity is likened to God.

E. Chamberlin considers pleasure to be one of the most important principles of perception of works of art, because this indicates a significant democratic tendency as opposed to the scholastic “scholarship” of previous aesthetic theories.

The aesthetic thought of the Renaissance contains not only the idea of ​​the absolutization of the human individual as opposed to the divine personality in the Middle Ages, but also a certain awareness of the limitations of such individualism, based on the absolute self-affirmation of the individual. Hence the motives of tragedy found in the works of W. Shakespeare, M. Cervantes, Michelangelo and others. This is the inconsistency of a culture that has moved away from ancient-medieval absolutes, but due to historical circumstances has not yet found new reliable foundations.

The connection between art and science is one of the characteristic features of culture. Artists sought support in the sciences, often stimulating their development. The Renaissance was marked by the emergence of scientific artists, among whom the first place belongs to Leonardo da Vinci.

Thus, one of the tasks of the Renaissance is for man to comprehend a world filled with divine beauty. The world attracts man because it is spiritualized by God. But during the Renaissance, there was another tendency - a person’s feeling of the tragedy of his existence.

2. Image of the world and man in the works of great masters Renaissance

The term "Renaissance" (translation of the French term "Renaissance") indicates the connection of the new culture with antiquity. As a result of their acquaintance with the East, in particular with Byzantium, during the era of the Crusades, Europeans became acquainted with ancient humanistic manuscripts and various monuments of ancient fine art and architecture. All these antiquities began to be partially transported to Italy, where they were collected and studied. But in Italy itself there were many ancient Roman monuments, which also began to be carefully studied by representatives of the Italian urban intelligentsia. Italian society developed a deep interest in classical ancient languages, ancient philosophy, history and literature. The city of Florence played a particularly large role in this movement. A number of outstanding figures of the new culture emerged from Florence.

Using ancient ideology, once created in the most economically vibrant cities of antiquity, the new bourgeoisie processed it in its own way, formulating its own new worldview, sharply opposed to the previously dominant worldview of feudalism. The second name of the new Italian culture - humanism - just proves this.

Humanistic culture placed the person himself (humanus - human) at the center of its attention, and not the divine, otherworldly, as was the case in medieval ideology. There was no longer any place for asceticism in the humanistic worldview. The human body, its passions and needs were viewed not as something “sinful” that had to be suppressed or tortured, but as an end in itself, as the most important thing in life. Earthly existence was recognized as the only real one. Knowledge of nature and man was declared the essence of science. In contrast to the pessimistic motives that dominated the worldview of medieval scholastics and mystics, optimistic motives prevailed in the worldview and mood of the people of the Renaissance; They were characterized by faith in man, in the future of humanity, in the triumph of human reason and enlightenment. A galaxy of outstanding poets and writers, scientists and artists of various types participated in this new great intellectual movement. Such wonderful artists brought glory to Italy: Leonardo da Vinci, Giorgione, Michelangelo, Raphael, Titian.

An undoubted achievement of the Renaissance was the geometrically correct design of the painting. The artist built the image using the techniques he developed. The main thing for painters of that time was to maintain the proportions of objects. Even nature fell under mathematical techniques.

In other words, artists during the Renaissance sought to convey an accurate image of, for example, a person against a background of nature. If we compare it with modern techniques of recreating a seen image on some canvas, then, most likely, photography with subsequent adjustments will help to understand what the Renaissance artists were striving for.

Renaissance painters believed that they had the right to correct the shortcomings of nature, that is, if a person had ugly facial features, the artists corrected them in such a way that the face became sweet and attractive.

By depicting biblical scenes, Renaissance artists tried to make it clear that the earthly manifestations of man can be depicted more clearly if biblical stories are used. You can understand what the Fall, temptation, hell or heaven is if you start getting acquainted with the work of artists of that time. The same image of the Madonna conveys to us the beauty of a woman, and also carries within itself an understanding of earthly human love.

Thus, in the art of the Renaissance, the paths of scientific and artistic comprehension of the world and man were closely intertwined. Its cognitive meaning was inextricably linked with sublime poetic beauty; in its desire for naturalness, it did not stoop to petty everyday life. Art has become a universal spiritual need.

Conclusion

So, the Renaissance, or Renaissance, is an era in the life of mankind, marked by a colossal rise in art and science. The Renaissance proclaimed man as the highest value of life.

In art, the main theme was a person with unlimited spiritual and creative potential.The art of the Renaissance laid the foundations of European culture of the New Age and radically changed all major types of art.

New types of public buildings have emerged in architecture.Painting was enriched by linear and aerial perspective, knowledge of the anatomy and proportions of the human body.Earthly content penetrated into the traditional religious themes of works of art. Interest in ancient mythology, history, everyday scenes, landscapes, and portraits increased. A picture appeared, oil painting appeared. The creative individuality of the artist came first in art.

In the art of the Renaissance, the paths of scientific and artistic comprehension of the world and man were closely intertwined.Art has become a universal spiritual need.

Of course, the Renaissance is one of the most beautiful eras in human history.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. KUSTODIEVA T.K. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE ART OF THE XIII-XVI CENTURIES (ESSAY-GUIDE) / T.K. KUSTODIEVA, ART, 1985. 318 P.
2. IMAGES OF LOVE AND BEAUTY IN THE RENAISSANCE CULTURE / L.M. BRAGINA, M., 2008. 309 P.
3. STEPANOV A.V. RENAISSANCE ART. ITALY XIV-XV CENTURIES / A.V. STEPANOV, M., 2007. 610 P.
4. STEPANOV A.V. RENAISSANCE ART. NETHERLANDS, GERMANY, FRANCE, SPAIN, ENGLAND / A.V. STEPANOV, ABC-CLASSICS, 2009. 640 P.
5. CHAMBERLIN E. RENAISSANCE. LIFE, RELIGION, CULTURE / E. CHAMBERLIN, CENTERPOLYGRAPH, 2006. 240 P.

During the Renaissance, an attitude was gradually formed among architects towards a structure as part of a whole, which must be able to relate to the surrounding space, and be able to find a contrasting, mutually beneficial combination of different structures. The culture of urban planning of the Renaissance took shape gradually and in various ensembles - in San Marco Square in Venice, in the ensemble of the Educational House of the Silkworm Workshop of the architect. Brunelleschi and others. The use of arcades and colonnades along the streets was of great importance, which gave urban development noticeable community features (Uffizi Street in Florence by the architect Vasari).

Gradually, in the understanding of architects, the idea of ​​the city as a single whole, in which all parts are interconnected, matured. New firearms made medieval stone fortifications defenseless. This predetermined the appearance of earthen walls along the perimeter of cities.bastionsand determined the star shape of the line of city fortifications. Cities of this type appeared in the 2/3 of the 16th century. A revivalist idea of"ideal city" -the city most convenient for living.

In organizing the urban area, Renaissance architects followed 3 basic principles:
1. class settlement (for nobles - the central and best parts of the city);
2. professional-group settlement of the rest of the population (artisans of related professions are nearby);
3. division of the city territory into residential, industrial, commercial and public complexes.
The layout of “ideal cities” must necessarily be regular or radial-ring, but the choice of layout must be determined by natural conditions: relief, reservoir, river, winds, etc.

Palma Nuova, 1593

Usually in the center of the city there was a main public square with a castle or with a town hall and a church in the middle. Trade or religious areas of regional significance in radial cities were located at the intersection of radial streets with one of the city's ring highways.
These projects also involved significant improvement - landscaping streets, creating channels for rainwater drainage and sewerage. Houses had to have certain height ratios and distances between them for the best insolation and ventilation.
Despite their utopianism, the theoretical developments of the “ideal cities” of the Renaissance had some influence on the practice of urban planning, especially when constructing small fortifications in a short time(Valetta, Palma Nuova, Granmichele- 16th -17th centuries).

The creation of an ideal city tormented scientists and architects from various countries and eras, but the first attempts to design something like this arose during the Renaissance. Although, at the court of the pharaohs and Roman emperors, scientists worked, whose works were aimed at creating some kind of ideal settlement, in which not only everything would clearly obey the hierarchy, but also in which it would be comfortable to live for both the ruler and a simple artisan. Just remember Akhetaten, Mohenjodaro, or the fantastic project proposed by Stasicrates to Alexander the Great, according to which he proposed to carve a statue of a commander with a city located on his arm from Mount Athos. The only problem was that these settlements either remained on paper or were destroyed. Not only architects, but also many artists came to the idea of ​​designing an ideal city. There are references to the fact that Piero della Francesca, Giorgio Vasari, Luciano Laurana and many others were involved in this.

Piero della Francesco was known to his contemporaries primarily as the author of treatises on art. Only three of them have reached us: “Treatise on the Abacus”, “Perspective in Painting”, “Five Regular Bodies”. It was he who first raised the question of creating an ideal city, in which everything would be subordinated to mathematical calculations and promising constructions of clear symmetry. For this reason, many scholars attribute to Pierrot the image “View of an Ideal City,” which fits perfectly into the principles of the Renaissance.

Leon Battista Alberti came closest to implementing such a large-scale project. True, he was not able to realize his entire idea, but he left behind a large number of drawings and notes, from which other artists were later able to achieve what Leon failed to achieve. In particular, Bernardo Rossellino performed many of his projects. But Leon implemented his principles not only in writing, but also through the example of many of the buildings he built. Basically, these are numerous palazzos designed for noble families. The architect reveals his own example of an ideal city in his treatise “On Architecture”. The scientist wrote this work until the end of his life. It was published posthumously and became the first printed book revealing the problems of architecture. According to Leon's teachings, the ideal city should reflect all human needs and answer all his humanistic needs. And this is no coincidence, because the leading philosophical thought in the Renaissance was anthropocentric humanism. The city should be divided into quarters, which would be divided according to a hierarchical principle or by type of employment. In the center, on the main square, there is a building where city power would be concentrated, as well as the main cathedral and the houses of noble families and city managers. Closer to the outskirts were the houses of traders and artisans, and the poor lived on the border itself. This arrangement of buildings, according to the architect, became an obstacle to the emergence of various social unrest, since the houses of the rich would be separated from the homes of poor citizens. Another important planning principle is that it had to meet the needs of any category of citizens, so that both the ruler and the clergy would feel comfortable living in this city. It was supposed to contain all the buildings, from schools and libraries to markets and baths. The general accessibility of such buildings is also important. Even if we ignore all the ethical and social principles of an ideal city, external, artistic values ​​remain. The layout had to be regular, according to which the city was divided into clear blocks by straight streets. In general, all architectural structures should be subordinated to geometric shapes and drawn along a ruler. The squares were either circular or rectangular in shape. According to these principles, old cities, such as Rome, Genoa, Naples, were subject to partial demolition of old medieval streets and the creation of new spacious quarters.

In some treatises a similar remark was found about the leisure of people. It concerned mainly boys. It was proposed to build playgrounds and intersections of such a type in cities that young people playing would be under the constant supervision of adults who could watch them without hindrance. These precautions were aimed at instilling prudence in young people.

The culture of the Renaissance in many ways provided food for further reflection on the structure of an ideal city. This was especially true for humanists. According to their worldview, everything should be created for a person, for his comfortable existence. When all these conditions are fulfilled, a person will receive social peace and mental happiness. Therefore, in this
In a society, wars or riots simply cannot arise a priori. Humanity has been moving toward this result throughout its entire existence. Just remember the famous “Utopia” by Thomas More or “1984” by George Orwell. Works of this kind touched not only on functional features, but also thought about the relationships, order and structure of the community that lived in this locality, not necessarily a city, maybe even the world. But these foundations were laid back in the 15th century, so we can safely say that the scientists of the Renaissance were comprehensively educated people of their time.