Ancient philosophy periodization and features of ancient philosophy. Ancient philosophers

ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY- historically the first form of European theoretical thought, which became the basis for development and the cultural horizon for all subsequent forms of thinking that arose within the intellectual space of medieval, modern and modern Europe. Chronologically, the history of ancient philosophy covers the period of St. 1200 years, from the 6th century. BC. to 6th century AD Geographically, we have before us the eastern half of the Mediterranean, where during the indicated period of time the polis democracy of Ancient Greece during the times of independence, the Hellenistic monarchies that arose after the collapse of the empire of Alexander the Great, Republican Rome and Imperial Rome managed to give way. All this time, the language of ancient philosophy was Greek, although the gradual development of Latin as a philosophical language (Lucretius, Cicero, Seneca) is certainly important. In addition, for the late period, when ancient philosophy coexisted with Christian doctrine, its fundamental feature was its “pagan” character - accordingly, Christian thinkers of the 2nd–6th centuries. find themselves outside the scope of the course on the history of ancient philosophy (see Patristics ).

The conditional date of the beginning of ancient philosophy is 585 BC, when the Greek scientist and sage Thales from Miletus predicted a solar eclipse, the conditional final date is 529 AD, when the Platonic Academy in Athens, the last philosophical school, was closed by the edict of the Christian emperor Justinian antiquity. The convention of these dates lies in the fact that in the first case Thales turns out to be the “founder of philosophy” (Aristotle first called him that in Metaphysics, 983b20) long before the word “philosophy” appeared, and in the second case the history of ancient philosophy is considered complete, although somewhat Its outstanding representatives (Damascus, Simplicius, Olympiodorus) continued their scientific work. Nevertheless, these dates make it possible to determine the space within which a schematic presentation of the diverse and heterogeneous heritage united in the concept of “ancient philosophy” is possible.

Study sources. 1. A corpus of philosophical texts from antiquity, preserved in medieval manuscripts in Greek. The best preserved texts are those of Plato, Aristotle and the Neoplatonists - philosophers who were of greatest interest to Christian culture. 2. Texts that became known to scientists only in modern times thanks to archaeological excavations; The most important finds are the Epicurean library of papyrus scrolls from Herculaneum (see. Philodemus of Gadara ), a stone stele with an Epicurean text carved on it (see. Diogenes of Oenoanda ), papyri with Aristotle's Athenian Polity, found in Egypt, anonymous commentary of the 2nd century. AD to Plato's Theaetetus, papyrus from Derveni, 5th century. with an interpretation of Homer. 3. Ancient texts that have survived only in translation into other languages: Latin, Syriac, Arabic and Hebrew. Separately, we can mention ancient historical and philosophical texts, which are both primary and secondary sources on ancient philosophy. The most common genres of ancient historical and philosophical literature: philosophical biographies, compendia of opinions, in which the teachings of philosophers were grouped thematically, and school “successions”, which combined the first two methods within the framework of a strict scheme “from teacher to student” (see. Doxographers ). In general, a relatively small part of texts has reached us from antiquity, and the sample that has been preserved due to historical circumstances can be considered representative with reservations. Researchers often have to turn to methods of reconstructing sources to restore a more complete picture of the philosophical thought of antiquity.

For the convenience of an initial review, the history of ancient philosophy can be divided into the following periods: early Greek philosophy; Sophists and Socrates; Plato and Aristotle; Hellenistic philosophy; philosophical schools during the era of the Roman Empire; Neoplatonism.

EARLY GREEK PHILOSOPHY, OR “PRE-SOCRATICS” (6th-5th centuries BC). Main philosophical centers: Ionia (western coast of Asia Minor), Sicily, Southern Italy.

In essence, this period was characterized by an interest in cosmology and natural philosophy: reflection on the beginning, cause and constituent elements of the visible space , about the source of its movement and life, i.e. about him nature (cf. the traditional title of all works of the period: “On Nature”). Ideas about man are already recognized as philosophical issues proper, but are included in the context of the doctrine of the cosmos as its additional section; The doctrine of man gradually acquires the features of independence and develops from physiology (man as an element of the cosmos) and psychology (the human psyche as an animated element of the cosmos) to rationalistic ethics, which substantiates the rules of behavior in society in connection with a certain ideal (good, happiness).

SOPHISTS AND SOCRATES: HELLENIC ENLIGHTENMENT (2nd half of the 5th century BC). From this time on, Athens became the main philosophical center of Greece. This period is characterized by a shift in attention from natural-philosophical problems of understanding the world to ethical and social problems of human upbringing. Sophists did not constitute a single “school”, but together they are united by their common desire for public debate, professional pedagogy, and special attention to rhetoric as a form of expression of any ideas. Privately and by official invitation, they visited various cities (polises) of Greece and, for a fee, gave lessons in various disciplines, which are now commonly called “humanities.” Upbringing ( paideia ) as the second nature of man and as the basis of human community – the guiding idea of ​​sophistry. Among their favorite techniques was the demonstration of the dependence of moral norms and the laws of society on the volitional decision of a person (terminologically fixed by the opposition “nature - law”), which is why, in historical and philosophical terms, their views are considered relativistic. The relativism of the Sophists was arbitrary from general rhetorical attitudes and was not a form of theorizing (cf. the exercise of Gorgias “On Non-Being”, parodying Melissa’s treatise “On Being”). The opposition between nature and law (nomos - physis), reflecting one of the most striking features of the period, served as the basis for the social reformation of the sophists. The most famous sophists: Protagoras , Gorgias , Hippias , Antiphon , Prodicus .

The nature of philosophical teaching has changed significantly: instead of a school as a community of like-minded people, with a single way of life and constant closeness between teacher and student conducting an oral dialogue, the school becomes a professional institution, and philosophy begins to be taught by professional teachers who receive salaries from the state (the emperor). In 176 AD emperor Marcus Aurelius establishes (allocates state subsidies) four philosophical departments in Athens: Platonic, Peripatetic, Stoic and Epicurean, which clearly limits the main philosophical trends of the period. The main attention in different schools was paid to one thing - the restoration of an authoritative corpus of texts for one or another tradition (cf. Andronicus's publication of the texts of Aristotle, Thrasyllus – texts of Plato). The beginning of the era of systematic commentary: if the previous period can be designated as the era of dialogue, then this and the next stage in the history of ancient philosophy is the period comments , i.e. a text created in relation to and in relation to another, authoritative text. The Platonists comment on Plato, the Peripatetics on Aristotle, the Stoics on Chrysippus (cf. Epictetus, "Manual" § 49; "Conversations" I 10, 8 - about the Stoic school exegesis, in contrast to the Platonic and Peripatetic, represented by the surviving texts, we can only judge by hints). According to the remark of the peripatetic Alexander of Aphrodisias (2nd century AD) · discussion of “theses” was the custom of ancient philosophers, “they gave their lessons in exactly this way - without commenting on books, as they do now (there were no such books then kind), and by presenting a thesis and giving arguments for and against, they thereby exercised their ability to find evidence based on premises accepted by everyone ”(Alex. Aphrod. In Top., 27, 13 Wallies).

Of course, oral exercises could not be discarded - but now they are exercises in explaining written texts. The difference is clearly visible in the new school formulation of the research question (not about the subject, but about how Plato or Aristotle understood the subject): for example, not “is the world eternal?”, but “can we consider that according to Plato the world is eternal if in the Timaeus, does he recognize the demiurge of the world?” (cf. Plato's Questions by Plutarch of Chaeronea).

The desire to systematize and organize the heritage of the past was also manifested in a huge number of doxographic compendia and biographical histories created during this period from the 1st century. BC. (the most famous is the compendium of Arius Didymus) until the beginning. 3rd century (the most famous - Diogenes Laertius And Sexta Empirica ), and in the widespread distribution of school textbooks designed to correctly and intelligibly introduce both students and the general public to the teachings of the great philosophers (cf. especially Platonic textbooks Apuleius And Alcinous ).

LATE ANTIQUE PHILOSOPHY: NEOPLATONISM (3rd–6th centuries AD). The final period of the history of ancient philosophy is characterized by the dominance Neoplatonism , which synthetically assimilated elements of Aristotelianism, neo-Pythagoreanism and Stoicism while maintaining traditional Platonic dogmatics ( middle platonism ). The new synthesis had significant differences from the previous tradition of Platonism, which gave rise to scientists in the 19th century. coin the term "Neoplatonism". The Neoplatonists themselves called themselves Platonists and believed that they were in line with a single tradition coming from the “divine Plato.” The main philosophical centers of late antiquity are associated with the activities of the schools of Neoplatonism: Rome (Plotinus, Porphyry), Apamea in Syria (where Amelius, a student of Plotinus, and Iamblichus, who headed the school after Amelius, taught - the Syrian school), Pergamon (Pergamon school, founded by a student of Iamblichus Edesiem), Alexandria ( Alexandria School : Hypatia, Hierocles, Hermias, Ammonius, John Philoponus, Olympiodorus), Athens ( Athens school : Plutarch, Sirian, Proclus, Damascus, Simplicius).

Plotinus is considered the founder of Neoplatonism, because in the corpus of his works ( "Enneads" ) contains all the basic concepts of Neoplatonic philosophy, which he built into a harmonious ontological hierarchy: the super-existential principle - One -good, the second hypostasis is Mind -nous , third – World Soul and sensual Space . The One is inaccessible to thought and is comprehended only in a super-mental ecstatic union with it, expressed not by ordinary linguistic means, but negatively, through negation (cf. apophatic theology). The transition from one to other levels of being is described in terms of “radiation”, “disclosure”, later the main term is “emanation” (proodos), see. Emanation . Each lower level exists thanks to its appeal to a higher principle and imitates the higher one by creating the next after itself (thus the mind acts as the beginning for the soul, and the soul for the cosmos). In the future, this scheme will be refined and carefully developed. In general, late (post-Iamblichian) Neoplatonism is extremely characterized by systematism, scholasticism, mysticism and magic (theurgy). The absence of socio-political issues, so important for Plato himself, is noteworthy; Neoplatonism is entirely metaphysics and theology.

Among the authoritative texts for Neoplatonists, in addition to the texts of Plato (commentaries on Plato's dialogues form the main part of the heritage of this tradition), were the works of Aristotle, Homer and the Chaldean Oracles. Commentaries on Aristotle are the second largest part of the surviving heritage of Neoplatonism; The key problem for Neoplatonist commentators was the problem of reconciling the teachings of Plato and Aristotle (see more details Aristotle commentators ). In general, the course of Aristotle's philosophy was considered as a propaedeutic ("lesser mysteries") to the study of Plato ("greater mysteries").

In 529, by an edict of Emperor Justinian, the Athens Academy was closed, and philosophers were forced to stop teaching. This date is accepted as a symbolic completion of the history of ancient philosophy, although the philosophers expelled from Athens continued to work on the outskirts of the empire (for example, comments Simplici I, which have become for us one of the most important sources on the history of ancient philosophy, were written by him already in exile).

PHILOSOPHY – ΦΙΛΙΑ ΣΟΦΙΑΣ. The ancient philosophers themselves spoke about what philosophy is as often as they often had to begin the initial philosophical course. A similar course in Neoplatonic schools began with the reading of Aristotle, Aristotle began with logic, logic - with the Categories. Several “introductions to philosophy” and “introductions to Aristotle” have been preserved, preceding school commentaries on the “Categories”. Porfiry, who first proposed considering Aristotle’s works as a propaedeutic to Plato’s, at one time wrote a special “Introduction to the Categories” (“Isagog”), which became the basic textbook for Neoplatonists. Commenting on Porphyry, the Neoplatonist Ammonius lists several traditional definitions in which Platonic, Aristotelian and Stoic themes can be distinguished: 1) “knowledge of beings insofar as they are beings”; 2) “knowledge of divine and human affairs”; 3) “likening God to the extent possible for a person”; 4) “preparation for death”; 5) “the art of arts and the science of sciences”; 6) “love of wisdom” ( Ammonius. In Porph. Isagogen, 2, 22–9, 24). The best way to clarify the meaning of these later school definitions, which demonstrated the stability and spaciousness of the tradition that consolidated the various teachings of more than a thousand years into one “history of ancient philosophy,” could be all the ancient philosophical texts at our disposal.

Having ceased to exist, ancient philosophy became a significant factor in the development of European philosophical thought (proximately influencing the formation of Christian theology and medieval scholasticism) and remains so until the present day. The language of ancient philosophy has not lost its liveliness. While some terms forever remained technical terms only of the philosophy of the Greeks ( arete , ataraxia ,

Encyclopedias and dictionaries:

1. Pauly A., Wissowa G, Kroll W.(hrsg.). Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, 83 Bände. Stuttg., 1894–1980;

2. Der Neue Pauly. Enzyklopaedie der Antike. Das klassische Altertum und seine Rezeptionsgeschichte in 15 Bänden, hrsg. v. H.Cancik und H.Schneider. Stuttg., 1996–99;

3. Goulet R.(ed.). Dictionnaire des philosophes antiques, v. 1–2. P., 1989–94;

4. Zeyl D.J.(ed.). Encyclopedia of Classical Philosophy. Westport, 1997.

Detailed accounts of the history of ancient philosophy:

1. Losev A.F. History of ancient aesthetics in 8 volumes. M., 1963–93;

2. Guthrie W.K.S. A History of Greek Philosophy in 6 vols. Camhr., 1962–81;

3. Algra K., Barnes J., Mansfeld J., Schofield M.(eds.), The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. Cambr., 1999;

4. Armstrong A.H.(ed.). The Cambridge History of Later Greek and Early Medieval Philosophy. Cambr., 1967;

5. Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie, begr. v. Fr. Ueberweg: Die Philosophie des Altertums, hrsg. v. K.Prächter, völlig neubearbeitete Ausgabe: Die Philosophie der Antike, hrsg. v. H. Flaschar, Bd. 3–4. Basel–Stuttg., 1983–94 (volumes 1–2 forthcoming);

6. Reale G. Storia della filosofia antica, v. 1–5. Mil., 1975–87 (English translation: A History of Ancient Philosophy. Albany, 1985);

7. Zeller E. Die Philosophie der Griechen in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung, 3 Teile in 6 Bänden. Lpz., 1879–1922 (3–6 Aufl.; Neudruck Hildesheim, 1963).

Tutorials:

1. Zeller E. Essay on the history of Greek philosophy. St. Petersburg, 1912 (reprint 1996);

2. Chanyshev A.N. Course of lectures on ancient philosophy. M., 1981;

3. It's him. Course of lectures on ancient and medieval philosophy. M., 1991;

4. Bogomolov A.S. Ancient philosophy. M., 1985;

5. Reale J., Antiseri D. Western philosophy from its origins to the present day. I. Antiquity (translated from Italian). St. Petersburg, 1994;

6. Losev A.F. Dictionary of Ancient Philosophy. M., 1995;

7. History of philosophy: West – Russia – East, book. 1: Philosophy of Antiquity and the Middle Ages, ed. N.V. Motroshilova. M., 1995;

8. Ado Pierre. What is ancient philosophy? (translated from French). M., 1999;

9. Canto-Sperber M., Barnes J., Brisson L., Brunschwig J., Vlastos G.(eds.). Philosophie grecque. P., 1997.

Readers:

1. Pereverzentsev S.V. Workshop on the history of Western European philosophy (Antiquity, Middle Ages, Renaissance). M., 1997;

2. Vogel S. de(ed.). Greek Philosophy. A collection of texts selected and supplied with some notes and explanations, vol. 1–3. Leiden, 1963–67;

3. Long A.A., Sedley D.N.(eds. and trs.). The Hellenistic Philosophers, 2 v. Cambr., 1987.

Manuals on the history of Greek culture and education:

1. Zelinsky F.F. From the life of ideas, 3rd ed. Pg., 1916;

2. It's him. Hellenistic religion. Pg., 1922;

3. Marru A.-I. History of education in antiquity (Greece), trans. from French, M., 1998;

4. Yeager V. Paideia. Education of the Ancient Greek, trans. with him. M., 1997.

Literature:

1. Losev A.F. Ancient space and modern science. M., 1927 (reprint 1993);

2. It's him. Essays on ancient symbolism and mythology. M., 1930 (reprint 1993);

3. It's him. Hellenistic-Roman aesthetics of the 1st–2nd centuries. AD M., 1979;

4. Rozhansky I.D. Development of natural science in antiquity. M., 1979;

5. Bogomolov A.S. Dialectical logos. The formation of ancient dialectics. M., 1982;

6. Gaidenko P.P. Evolution of the concept of science. M., 1980;

7. Zaitsev A.I. Cultural revolution in Ancient Greece VIII–VI centuries. BC, L., 1985;

9. Anton J.P., Kustas G.L.(eds). Essays in Ancient Greek Philosophy. Albany, 1971;

10. Haase W., Temporini H.(eds.), Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt. Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung, Teil II, Bd. 36, 1–7. V.–N. Υ., 1987–98;

11. Mansfeld J. Questions to be settled before the study of an author or a text. Leiden-N. Y.–Köln, 1994;

12. Irwin T. (ed.). Classical Philosophy: Collected Papers, vol. 1–8. N.Y., 1995;

13. The Cambridge Companion to early Greek philosophy, ed. by A.A.Long. N. Y, 1999.

Ongoing editions:

1. Entretiens sur l "Antiquité classique, t. 1–43. Vandoevres–Gen., 1952–97;

2. Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy, ed. J. Annas et al., v. 1–17. Oxf, 1983–99.

Bibliographies:

1. Marouzeau J.(ed.), L"Année philologique. Bibliographie critique et analytique de l"antiquité gréco-latine. P., 1924–99;

2. Bell A.A. Resources in Ancient Philosophy: An Annotated Bibliography of Scholarship in English. 1965–1989 Metuchen–N. J., 1991.

Internet tools:

1. http://cailimac.vjf.cnrs.fr(various information on classical antiquity, including the latest issues of Maruso);

2. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu(classical texts in the original and translation into English);

3. http://www.gnomon.kueichstaett.de/Gnomon (bibliographies of works on ancient culture and philosophy);

4. http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr(Bryn Mawr Classical Review - reviews of literature on antiquity).

Topic 2 Ancient philosophy

1. Main characteristics.

2. Pre-Socratic philosophy.

3. Classical ancient philosophy.

Main characteristics

Antiquity (antiquity - antiquity) covers approximately the 7th century BC and the 5th century AD.

Features of ancient philosophy:

a) cosmocentrism - understanding the world as a cosmos, an ordered and purposeful whole (as opposed to chaos);

b) dialectics - the idea of ​​​​the continuous variability of the Cosmos, which, however, does not generate anything new. (the idea of ​​a cycle);

c) ahistoricism – not an understanding of historical development;

d) gelozoism – animation of the entire Cosmos.

Pre-Socratic philosophy

Ancient philosophy goes through 3 stages of its development: pre-Socratic (emergence), classical (dawn), Hellenic-Roman (decline).

Pre-Socratic schools: Pythagorean, Miletus, Eleatic.

The Pythagorean school is a closed organization of a paramilitary type. Founder Pythogor. His students: Metrodar, Philolaus. They took number as the fundamental principle of the world. "Everything is a number." Number is an independent entity, Substance. Numerical relationships underlie all properties of things.

Miletus School (6th century BC, Miletus). The founder is Thales. Other representatives: Anaximenes, Anaximander. These philosophers understood substance as the primary material from which everything arose. That is, substance was understood as substance. According to Thales, substance is water, according to Anaximenes it is air. According to Anaximander, apeiron is a special, unobservable, indefinite substance.

For the first time, the ideas that phenomenon and essence are not the same thing were expressed by the Eletians (6-5 centuries BC, Elea). Representatives: Xenophanes (founder), Parmenides, Zeno of Elea. Therefore, they are considered the first philosophers, whose teachings are deeply philosophical in nature. The Eleatics believed that the basis of the sensory world (directly given in experience) is only intelligible (comprehensible by reason). What appears to us and what actually exists are different. They introduced the categories of being and non-being into philosophy. By being we understood that which exists (everything that exists), and by non-existence we understood everything that does not exist. They believed that existence is one and motionless. Being is Thought (being = thinking). To prove that being is motionless, Zeno developed aporia (unsolvable contradictions) - reasoning with the help of which the inconsistency of reason in proving movement in the world is revealed. These are such aporia as “Arrow”, “Dichtomy”, “Achilles and the Tortoise”. They are intended to prove that the attempt to think about movement leads to contradiction. Therefore, movement is only an appearance. The substance is motionless. That is why the Eleatics were called “immobiles.” They laid the foundation for a cognitive approach based on the principle of the immutability of the world. This approach is called metaphysical. In Ancient Greece, everyone wanted to refute the ideas of the Eleatics, but no one could.

The opposite method of cognition is dialectics. Its founder is Heraclitus. “Space and planets are pieces of solidified lava, life arose on them. This space arose after another catastrophe. Someday the fire will return to itself. “This cosmos, one for all, was not created by any of the gods or by any of the people, but was, is and will be a living fire, ignited in proportions and extinguished in proportions.” Thus, the essence of subsidization (fire) is eternal movement. “You cannot step into the same river twice.” His student Cratylus argued that it is impossible to enter the same water once.

The model of a mobile substance was developed within the framework of ancient atomism. Representatives: Leucippus, Democritus. They took atoms as the fundamental principle of the world - indivisible, tiny material particles, the main properties of which are size and shape. Democritus: “Atoms are eternal, unchanging, there is no emptiness inside them, but emptiness separates them.” Between the atoms of the human body there are “balls” of the soul. Atoms differ in order and position (rotation). The number of atoms and their variety are infinite. The eternal property of atoms is movement. Movement is an internal source. Atoms float in the void. When they collide, they change direction. When they combine, they form bodies. The properties of bodies depend on the type and connection of atoms. Because the movement of atoms occurs according to strict laws, everything in the world is predetermined by necessity. There are no accidents in the world (determinism).

During the Hellenistic period, atomism was developed in the teachings of Epicurus, who founded the “Garden of Epicurus” school in Athens. Epicurus defined atoms as the limit of division of everything that exists. The number of atoms is infinite, but the number of their forms is not infinite, although it is large. At the beginning of time, atoms freely fell in the void. When they are deflected from a vertical fall, they collide, resulting in the creation of a world. Epicurus introduces the concept of “clinamen” - the spontaneous deviation of atoms from the original trajectory in an unspecified place and at an unspecified time. He thereby allowed for the existence of chance, which for a person means freedom and the possibility of choice. The gods reside in interstellar space and do not interfere in the affairs of people. Ancient atomism underlies the formation of classical science.

Classical ancient philosophy

Classical ancient philosophy covers the 5th-4th centuries BC. During this period, great philosophical teachings emerged that determined the further course of philosophical thought in the West. Representatives: Socrates - the founder, Plato, Aristotle.

Plato's philosophical school in Athens was called the "Academy" because... was located near the Akadema Temple. His concept: there are two worlds - the sensory world of things and the intelligible world of ideas - eidos. In earthly reality, we see eidos only embodied in things. In an ideal world they exist in their pure form. The highest idea is the idea of ​​the Good. The existence of things is secondary to eidos. A thing is formed by the combination of eidos with a certain amount of substance. Plato called the material principle “hora” - matter. This is a passive dead substance that does not have internal organization. This was the beginning of idealism.

Aristotle is a philosopher with an encyclopedic mind. He was the first to systematize all the scientific knowledge of that time. At that time, all scientific knowledge was usually called philosophy. Aristotle divides science into theoretical, practical and creative. Theoretical sciences – philosophy, physics, mathematics. It is they, and, first of all, philosophy, that discover the unchanging principles of existence. He assigns a special role to philosophy. It deals with the knowledge of the first principles, the first principles of the world, the problem of human knowledge and knowledge itself (the problem of distinguishing between true and false knowledge).

Aristotle did not doubt the reality of the world. “The world is one and doubts about its reality have no basis.” Aristotle: “Plato is my friend, but truth is dearer.”

The fundamental place in Aristotle's philosophy is occupied by the doctrine of matter and form. “I call matter that from which something arises, i.e. matter is the material of a thing.” Matter is indestructible and does not disappear, but it is only material. Before taking a certain form, it is in a state of non-existence; without form, it is devoid of life, integrity, and energy. Without form, matter is a possibility; with form it becomes reality. Aristotle taught that the reverse transition of form into matter is also possible. Aristotle came to the conclusion that there is also a first form - the form of forms, which is God.

This is the philosophy of the ancient Greeks and Romans, which originated in the 6th century BC in Greece and lasted until the 5th century AD. Formally, the date of its completion is considered to be 529, when the Roman Emperor Justinian closed the Platonic Academy, the last philosophical school of antiquity.
The emergence and formation of ancient philosophy went in line with social life, within the framework of determining man’s relationship to the world. It was carried out through criticism of the anthropomorphism of mythology, through the creation of a categorical framework of the thought process. In search of the origin of the world and its understanding, philosophers of the ancient world reached the level of such abstract concepts as chaos and space, matter and idea, soul and mind.
If chaos was perceived as a formless, indefinite state of the world, its origin, then space meant an ordered, holistic understanding of the world. And the whole life of nature, man and society was presented as a movement from chaos to space. To describe this movement, the concepts of “matter” and “idea” were created in Greek philosophy: matter was understood as a certain potency, and the idea was perceived as a formative principle, as cosmic creativity.
Matter and idea were associated with a certain substance, which was quite normal for the ancient world with its passive and contemplative perception of reality. Knowledge of the world was limited to the external, phenomenal side of natural phenomena and facts. Matter and idea were correlated as passive and active principles and in their unity provided the diversity of the objective reality of the world as a sensory-material cosmos.

Space
The absolute object of ancient philosophy, which has always existed, independent of anyone, being the cause of itself and perceived as sensory.

Matter
The passive beginning of the cosmos, the potency of any phenomena of reality.

Idea
The active principle of the cosmos, the formative principle of existence.

Soul
This is what connects matter and idea.
Mind
The expedient determination of the world, the governing body of it.

Fate
The predetermination of events and actions, incomprehensible to man.

Periodization of the history of ancient philosophy

* Natural philosophical period - 7th - 5th centuries. BC.
* Anthropological period - 5th - 3rd centuries. BC.
* Systematic period - 3rd - 2nd centuries. BC.
* Ethical period - 3rd century. BC. - 3rd century AD
* Religious period - 3-4 centuries. AD

Natural philosophical period

Main problems

* The problem of the origin of space;
* Unity and diversity of the world.

Main directions and schools

* Ionian (Miletus) natural philosophy.
* Pythagorean Union.
* Eleatic school.
* Atomists.
* Heraclitus of Ephesus.

Ionian natural philosophy

The main thing in this philosophy
Represented by the Milesian school. The main thing in it is the doctrine of substance, which was understood as sensually perceived matter. The most famous names: Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes.

Thales
He considered water, liquid, to be the fundamental principle.

Anaximander
The substantial beginning of the cosmos is apeiron.

Anaximenes
All matter arises from the condensation and dilution of air.

Pythagorean Union
(Founded by Pythagoras (570-496 BC)

The main thing in the teachings of Pythagoras

* Form is an active principle that transforms amorphous matter into a world of tangible and knowable things.
* Number is the beginning of existence. Everything is countable.
* Mathematics is the main science.

Eleatic school

The main thing among the Eleatics
The main thing in this philosophy is the doctrine of the absoluteness of being. True existence is unchangeable, indivisible, beginningless, infinite, all-encompassing, immovable. The most famous representatives: Xenophanes, Zeno, Parmenides.

Xenophanes
(570-478)

He is the founder of the school. He argued that the integrity and indivisibility of existence is ensured by God, who possesses all possible perfections. Considered the predecessor of ancient skepticism.

Parmenides
(520-460)
He is considered a key figure in early Greek philosophy. The main thing for Parmenides is the doctrine of being as one, unchangeable, omnipotent and omnibeneficent. He contrasts being and non-being, truth and opinion, sensory and intelligible. Wrote a treatise "On Nature".

Zeno
(480-401)
He is famous for his aporias - arguments against the possibility of movement: “Dichotomy”, “Arrow”, “Moving Bodies”. Zeno did not recognize any other reality than the spatially extended one.

Atomists

The main thing in atomism

They got their name because the central concept of their philosophy is the atom. Absolute existence does not exist. There is only relative existence, characterized by emergence and destruction. At the heart of existence are many independent atoms, the combination of which forms things. Leucippus and Democritus were atomists.

Heraclitus of Ephesus
(520 - 460)

The main thing in the philosophy of Heraclitus
*Everything is in a constantly changing state.
* The beginning of all things is fire, endowed with the properties of divinity and eternity.
* The idea of ​​orderliness and proportionality of the world is expressed in the concept of Logos.
* Considered the creator of dialectics, understood as the doctrine of the unity of opposites. He is credited with the saying: “You cannot step into the same river twice.”
* Main philosophical work: “On Nature”.

Anthropological period
(4th - 3rd centuries BC)

This period is associated with the beginning of the crisis of ancient society. Indirect evidence of this is the emergence and spread of ideas promoting relativism and subjectivism. In philosophy, the discursive, logical approach to things comes first. The possibility of universals in knowledge and practice is denied. Sophists—paid teachers of thinking and speaking—are becoming “fashionable.” They were not interested in the truth, but in the art of arguing itself, achieving victory through the use of formal logical techniques, casuistry, and misleading the opponent.

The main thing in sophistry
* A common feature of sophistry is considered to be relativism, which found expression in the statement of Protagoras: “Man is the measure of all things.”
* The Sophists opposed nature as a stable and permanent part of reality to a society living according to changing laws.
* The Sophists developed a negative form of dialectic. They were teaching, calling on people to defend any point of view, because absolute truth does not exist.
* The term "sophistry" has become a common noun. A sophist is a person who engages in empty talk and obscures the essence of the matter during a dispute.
* The main representatives of sophistry: Protagoras and Gorgias.

Systematic period
(3rd - 2nd centuries BC)

Scattered teachings about substance, knowledge, and man are being replaced by attempts at systemic analysis. The first representatives of philosophy of this period had a negative attitude towards sophistry. Knowledge and practice are coordinated through moral activity. The purpose of cognition is declared to be generally valid concepts. The main representatives of the systematic period: Socrates, Socratics, Plato, Aristotle.

Philosophy of Socrates
(470-390)

The main thing with Socrates
* He considered the main task of philosophy to be the search for universal definitions of morality;
* The best form of philosophizing is dialogue. From him came the original meaning of the term “dialectics”: to conduct a conversation, reason;
* Highly appreciated the role of cognitive activity in the general structure of human spirituality;
* He considered democracy to be the worst form of government, and sharply and sarcastically criticized it;
* After the establishment of demos power in Athens, for disbelief in the state gods and corruption of youth, he was sentenced to death and died after drinking a cup of poison by court verdict;
* On principle, he did not write down his thoughts and therefore there were no written works left after him. The ideas of Socrates have come down to us mainly as presented by Plato.

Socratic schools

Created by students and followers of Socrates. They spread and developed his philosophy and criticized the sophists. There are three main schools of Socratics: Cyrenaics, Cynics, Megarics.

The content of the article

ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY- a set of philosophical teachings that arose in Ancient Greece and Rome in the period from the 6th century BC. to 6th century AD The conventional time boundaries of this period are considered to be 585 BC. (when the Greek scientist Thales predicted a solar eclipse) and 529 AD. (when the Neoplatonic school in Athens was closed by Emperor Justinian). The main language of ancient philosophy was ancient Greek, from the 2nd–1st centuries. The development of philosophical literature also began in Latin.

Study sources.

Most of the texts of Greek philosophers are represented in medieval manuscripts in Greek. In addition, valuable material is provided by medieval translations from Greek into Latin, Syriac and Arabic (especially if the Greek originals are irretrievably lost), as well as a number of manuscripts on papyri, partly preserved in the city of Herculaneum, covered with the ashes of Vesuvius - this latter the source of information about ancient philosophy represents the only opportunity to study texts written directly in the ancient period.

Periodization.

In the history of ancient philosophy, several periods of its development can be distinguished: (1) Pre-Socratics, or Early natural philosophy; (2) classical period (Sophists, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle); (3) Hellenistic philosophy; (4) turn-of-the-millennium eclecticism; (5) Neoplatonism. The late period is characterized by the coexistence of the school philosophy of Greece with Christian theology, which was formed under the significant influence of the ancient philosophical heritage.

Pre-Socratics

(6th – mid 5th centuries BC). Initially, ancient philosophy developed in Asia Minor (Miletus school, Heraclitus), then in Italy (Pythagoreans, Eleatic school, Empedocles) and on mainland Greece (Anaxagoras, atomists). The main theme of early Greek philosophy is the principles of the universe, its origin and structure. The philosophers of this period were mainly nature researchers, astronomers, and mathematicians. Believing that the birth and death of natural things does not occur by chance or out of nothing, they looked for a beginning, or a principle that explains the natural variability of the world. The first philosophers considered the beginning to be a single primal substance: water (Thales) or air (Anaximenes), the infinite (Anaximander), the Pythagoreans considered the limit and the infinite to be the beginning, giving rise to an ordered cosmos, cognizable through number. Subsequent authors (Empedocles, Democritus) named not one, but several principles (four elements, an infinite number of atoms). Like Xenophanes, many of the early thinkers criticized traditional mythology and religion. Philosophers have wondered about the causes of order in the world. Heraclitus and Anaxagoras taught about the rational principle ruling the world (Logos, Mind). Parmenides formulated the doctrine of true being, accessible only to thought. All subsequent development of philosophy in Greece (from the pluralistic systems of Empedocles and Democritus, to Platonism) to one degree or another demonstrates a response to the problems posed by Parmenides.

Classics of Ancient Greek Thought

(late 5th–4th centuries). The period of the Pre-Socratics is replaced by sophistry. Sophists are traveling paid teachers of virtue, their focus is on the life of man and society. The sophists saw knowledge, first of all, as a means to achieve success in life; they recognized rhetoric as the most valuable - mastery of words, the art of persuasion. The sophists considered traditional customs and moral norms relative. Their criticism and skepticism in their own way contributed to the reorientation of ancient philosophy from knowledge of nature to understanding the inner world of man. A clear expression of this “turn” was the philosophy of Socrates. He believed that the main thing was knowledge of good, because evil, according to Socrates, comes from people’s ignorance of their true good. Socrates saw the path to this knowledge in self-knowledge, in caring for his immortal soul, and not about his body, in comprehending the essence of the main moral values, the conceptual definition of which was the main subject of Socrates' conversations. The philosophy of Socrates gave rise to the so-called. Socratic schools (Cynics, Megarics, Cyrenaics), differing in their understanding of Socratic philosophy. The most outstanding student of Socrates was Plato, the creator of the Academy, the teacher of another major thinker of antiquity - Aristotle, who founded the Peripatetic school (Lyceum). They created holistic philosophical teachings, in which they examined almost the entire range of traditional philosophical topics, developed philosophical terminology and a set of concepts, the basis for subsequent ancient and European philosophy. What was common in their teachings was: the distinction between a temporary, sensory-perceptible thing and its eternal, indestructible, comprehended by the mind essence; the doctrine of matter as an analogue of non-existence, the cause of the variability of things; an idea of ​​the rational structure of the universe, where everything has its purpose; understanding of philosophy as a science about the highest principles and purpose of all existence; recognition that the first truths are not proven, but are directly comprehended by the mind. Both of them recognized the state as the most important form of human existence, designed to serve his moral improvement. At the same time, Platonism and Aristotelianism had their own characteristic features, as well as differences. The uniqueness of Platonism was the so-called theory of ideas. According to it, visible objects are only similarities of eternal essences (ideas), forming a special world of true existence, perfection and beauty. Continuing the Orphic-Pythagorean tradition, Plato recognized the soul as immortal, called to contemplate the world of ideas and life in it, for which a person should turn away from everything material and corporeal, in which the Platonists saw the source of evil. Plato put forward a doctrine atypical for Greek philosophy about the creator of the visible cosmos - the demiurge god. Aristotle criticized Plato's theory of ideas for the “doubling” of the world it produced. He himself proposed a metaphysical doctrine of the divine Mind, the primary source of the movement of the eternally existing visible cosmos. Aristotle laid the foundation for logic as a special teaching about the forms of thinking and the principles of scientific knowledge, developed a style of philosophical treatise that has become exemplary, in which first the history of the issue is considered, then the argumentation for and against the main thesis by putting forward aporia, and in conclusion, a solution to the problem is given.

Hellenistic philosophy

(late 4th century BC – 1st century BC). In the Hellenistic era, the most significant, along with the Platonists and Peripatetics, were the schools of the Stoics, Epicureans and Skeptics. During this period, the main purpose of philosophy is seen in practical life wisdom. Ethics, oriented not at social life, but at the inner world of the individual, acquires paramount importance. The theories of the universe and logic serve ethical purposes: developing the correct attitude towards reality to achieve happiness. The Stoics represented the world as a divine organism, permeated and completely controlled by a fiery rational principle, the Epicureans - as various formations of atoms, skeptics called for refraining from making any statements about the world. Having different understandings of the paths to happiness, they all similarly saw human bliss in a serene state of mind, achieved by getting rid of false opinions, fears, and internal passions that lead to suffering.

Turn of the Millennium

(1st century BC – 3rd century AD). During the period of late antiquity, polemics between schools were replaced by a search for common grounds, borrowings and mutual influence. There is a developing tendency to “follow the ancients,” to systematize and study the heritage of past thinkers. Biographical, doxographic, and educational philosophical literature is becoming widespread. The genre of commentary on authoritative texts (primarily the “divine” Plato and Aristotle) ​​is especially developing. This was largely due to new editions of Aristotle's works in the 1st century. BC. Andronicus of Rhodes and Plato in the 1st century. AD Thrasyllus. In the Roman Empire, starting from the end of the 2nd century, philosophy became the subject of official teaching, funded by the state. Stoicism was very popular among Roman society (Seneca, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius), but Aristotelianism (the most prominent representative was the commentator Alexander of Aphrodisias) and Platonism (Plutarch of Chaeronea, Apuleius, Albinus, Atticus, Numenius) gained more and more weight.

Neoplatonism

(3rd century BC – 6th century AD). In the last centuries of its existence, the dominant school of antiquity was Platonic, which took on the influences of Pythagoreanism, Aristotelianism and partly Stoicism. The period as a whole is characterized by interest in mysticism, astrology, magic (neopythagoreanism), various syncretic religious and philosophical texts and teachings (Chaldean oracles, Gnosticism, Hermeticism). A feature of the Neoplatonic system was the doctrine of the origin of all things - the One, which is above being and thought and is understandable only in unity with it (ecstasy). As a philosophical movement, Neoplatonism was distinguished by a high level of school organization and a developed commentary and pedagogical tradition. Its centers were Rome (Plotinus, Porphyry), Apamea (Syria), where there was a school of Iamblichus, Pergamum, where Iamblichus' student Aedesius founded the school, Alexandria (main representatives - Olympiodorus, John Philoponus, Simplicius, Aelius, David), Athens (Plutarch of Athens , Syrian, Proclus, Damascus). A detailed logical development of a philosophical system describing the hierarchy of the world born from the beginning was combined in Neoplatonism with the magical practice of “communication with the gods” (theurgy), and an appeal to pagan mythology and religion.

In general, ancient philosophy was characterized by considering man primarily within the framework of the system of the universe as one of its subordinate elements, highlighting the rational principle in man as the main and most valuable, recognizing the contemplative activity of the mind as the most perfect form of true activity. The wide variety and richness of ancient philosophical thought determined its invariably high significance and enormous influence not only on medieval (Christian, Muslim), but also on all subsequent European philosophy and science.

Maria Solopova

Topic 1.3 Outstanding philosophers of antiquity

Basic concepts and terms on the topic: syncretism, cosmocentricity, natural philosophy, humanism, Hellenism, neoplatonism, idealism, Eidos, hedonism, ataraxia, cynics, stoics, apeiron.

Topic study plan:

1. Features of ancient philosophy.
2. Five stages of ancient philosophy.
3. Views of ancient philosophers.

Summary of theoretical issues

Questions about infographics

1. Name and characterize two features of ancient philosophy.

2. What was the name of Aristotle’s school and who were his students?

3. Which of the ancient thinkers was sentenced to death? How exactly did the execution itself take place?

4. Relate;

Truth is born in dispute

(Socrates)

1. Features of ancient philosophy.

Ancient (Ancient Greek) philosophy appears in the 7th – 6th centuries BC.

By that time, Ancient Greece had a fairly developed slave society, with a complex social class structure and forms of division of labor that were already specialized. The role of intellectual and spiritual activity is also increasing, acquiring

traits of professionalism. Developed spiritual culture and art created fertile ground for the formation of philosophy and philosophical thinking. So, Homer and his work, it is enough to note him “Illiad” And "Odyssey", had a huge impact on many aspects of the spiritual life of Greek society of that period. One can figuratively say that all “ancient philosophers and thinkers” came out of Homer. And later, many of them turned to Homer and his works as argument and proof.

At first, philosophy appears in the form of philosophizing.

So, "seven wise men":

1) Thales of Miletus,

2) Pytton of Mytilene,

3) Biant from Prisna;

4) Solon from Asia;

5) Cleobulus of Liontia;

6) Mison of Heney;

7) Chilo from Lacedaemonia tried in aphoristic form to comprehend the essential aspects of the existence of the world and man, which have a stable, universal and generally significant character and determine the actions of people.

In the form of aphorisms, they developed rules and recommendations for human action that people should follow in order to avoid mistakes:

“Honor your father” (Cleobulus),

“Know Your Time” (Pitton);

“Hide the bad in your home” (Thales).

They were more in the nature of useful advice than philosophical statements. Their limited but rational meaning is expressed in utility. Due to this they are generally applicable. But already in Thales’s statements acquire a truly philosophical character, since they record the universal properties of nature that eternally exist. For example, “most of all is space, for it contains everything within itself,” “Most powerful of all is necessity, for it has power.” They contain only a hint of philosophical problems, but not a conscious formulation of them.

It is Thales who is considered the first philosopher!

But already within “Miletus School of Philosophers” a proper philosophical approach to understanding the world is being formed, because they consciously pose and try to answer such fundamental questions: Is the world one and how is its unity expressed? Does the world (in this case, nature) have its own fundamental principle and the root cause of its existence? The answer to such questions cannot be obtained on the basis of one’s life experience, but only through thinking in abstract, generalized concepts.

The “Miletus philosophers” designate objectively existing nature with a special concept “cosmos” (in Greek – universe, world). This is where one of the first theoretical ways of understanding the world appears - cosmologism(cosmos + logos, knowledge).

According to Diogenes Laertius, Pythagoras was first who named the universe "Space".

Features of ancient philosophy:

— syncretism(man is part of nature);

— cosmocentricity(man is part of the cosmos - the universe).

Ancient philosophy is characterized by the search for the meaning of life through the concepts of love, freedom, happiness, and harmony.

1. Five stages of ancient philosophy.

1. Natural philosophers (pre-Socratics): Thales (water), Heraclitus (fire), Democritus, Leucippus (atom), Pythagoras (number), Anaximander (apeiron). All natural philosophers tried to find the “primary source” of life.

2. Humanistic period : Socrates, Sophists (Protagoras). Socrates was the first to draw attention to the fact that man differs from all life on Earth by his Soul, therefore philosophy becomes humanistic, i.e. studying man.

3. Classic period: Plato (idealism), Aristotle (logic). Plato and Aristotle are considered theorists of philosophy.

4. Hellenism: Cyrenaics (Aristippus), Hedonism (Hegesius), Epicureans (Epicurus), Cynics (Diogenes of Sinope), Stoics (Zeno of Citium). The Hellenistic era gives rise to practical philosophy (philosophers not only theoretically substantiate their ideas and live according to them, for example, Diogenes lived in a barrel).

5. Neoplatonism: Plotinus.

As already mentioned, the first philosopher is considered to be Thales, the natural philosopher.

Philosophy lessons at that time were usually held on the street, in the form of a conversation between the teacher and his students

1. Views of ancient philosophers.

	HeraclitusEphesian th "About nature" "Everything flows, everything changes.- You cannot step into the same river twice." Fire is the most dynamic, changeable of all the elements. Therefore, for Heraclitus, fire became the beginning of the world, while water is only one of its states. Fire condenses into air, air turns into water, water into earth (“the downward path”, which gives way to the “upward path”). The Earth itself, on which we live, was once a red-hot part of the universal fire, but then cooled down.
	ThalesMilesian First philosopher (Ionic school) “What is difficult? - Know yourself. What's easy? - Giving advice to others.” Thales believed that everything [is born] from water; everything arises from water and turns into it. The beginning of the elements, of existing things, is water; the beginning and end of the Universe is water. Everything is formed from water through its solidification/freezing, as well as evaporation; When condensed, water becomes earth; when evaporated, it becomes air. The reason for the formation/movement is the spirit “nesting” in the water.
	PythagorasSamos "The beginning is half of the whole." “Don’t walk on the beaten path” "Don't break bread in two" "Don't eat your heart" Numbers are the basis of things, Pythagoras taught, to know the world means to know the numbers that control it. By studying numbers, they developed numerical relationships and found them in all areas of human activity. Numbers and proportions were studied in order to know and describe the human soul, and, having learned it, to manage the process of transmigration of souls with the ultimate goal of sending the soul to some higher divine state.
	AnaximanderMilesian representative of the Milesian school of natural philosophy, student of Thales. Author of the first Greek scientific work written in prose(“On Nature,” 547 BC). Introduced the term "law", applying the concept of social practice to nature and science. Anaximander is credited with one of the first formulations of the law of conservation of matter (“from the same things from which all existing things are born, into these same things they are destroyed according to their destiny”). Anaximander believes that the source of the origin of all things is a certain infinite, “ageless” [divine] principle - apeiron - which is characterized by continuous movement.
	DemocritusABdersky, student Leucippa, one of the founders of atomism. “It is better to expose your own mistakes than those of others.” « atom" - an indivisible particle of matter, possessing true existence, not destroyed and not created
………………………………………………………	ParmenidesAndz Elea "About nature" “Being is, but non-being is not.” Proved that there is only the eternal and unchanging Being, identical to thought. Its main theses are: “Beyond Being there is nothing. Likewise, thinking is Being, for one cannot think about anything. Being is not generated by anyone or anything, otherwise one would have to admit that it came from Non-Being, but there is no Non-Being.”
	SOCRATES 469 BC e., - 399 BC. e., ancient Greek philosopher, whose teaching marks a turn in philosophy - from consideration of nature and the world, to consideration of man. Sentenced to death for “corrupting youth” and “disrespecting the gods.” His activity is a turning point in ancient philosophy. His method of analyzing concepts (mayeutics, Socratic dialectic - the art of argument) and by identifying virtue and knowledge, he directed the attention of philosophers to the unconditional significance of the human personality. Maieutics- Socrates' method of extracting hidden knowledge in a person with the help of skillful leading questions. “Truth is born in dispute” “All I know is that I don’t know anything.” “There are so many things in the world that I don’t need!” Know yourself and you will know the most important thing...
	PLATO 428 or 427 BC e., - 348 or 347 BC. e., - ancient Greek philosopher, student of Socrates, teacher of Aristotle. Real name - Aristocles, Plato - a nickname meaning "broad, broad-shouldered." Plato's works are written in the form of highly artistic dialogues. Founder of the philosophical movement - idealism. The world obeys the Idea (Eidos)- lives, exists and develops in accordance with general laws, those rules that establish ideas. Ideas are the basis of the whole world. They are not visible to people and they cannot be felt, since feelings do not allow one to know the true nature of things (water, trees and the rest of the material world exist, but the reason for their existence, purpose, and meaning of their existence remain unknown to people). The highest idea (main) is the idea of ​​absolute good (agaton); world Mind; Deity. “Man is a wingless creature, bipedal, with flat nails, susceptible to knowledge based on reasoning.”
	ARISTOTLE 384 BC e., - 322 BC e., - ancient Greek philosopher and scientist. From 343 BC e. - teacher of Alexander the Great. In 335 BC e. founded the Lyceum (Lyceum, or peripatetic school). Peripatetics (from Greek, “to stroll, stroll”) The name of the school arose from Aristotle’s habit of walking with his students while lecturing. Founder of formal logic. He created a conceptual apparatus that still permeates the philosophical lexicon and the very style of scientific thinking. Aristotle's "First Philosophy" (later called metaphysics) contains the doctrine of the basic principles of being: matter and form, efficient cause and purpose, possibility and realization. Matter is the variety of things that exist objectively; matter is eternal, uncreated and indestructible; it cannot arise from nothing, increase or decrease in quantity; she is inert and passive. Form is the stimulus and goal, the reason for the formation of diverse things from monotonous matter. Creates the shapes of various things from matter God (or prime mover mind). Aristotle approaches the idea of ​​​​the individual existence of a thing, a phenomenon: it is a fusion of matter and form. Entelechy is an internal force that potentially contains a goal and a final result; “Plato is my friend, but truth is dearer.” “What is the meaning of life? Serve others and do good"

SOCRATES – PLATO – ARISTOTLE

(three pillars of philosophy)

Philosophers of the Hellenistic era.

LIFE is pleasure

HEDONISM

The founder is considered Aristippus(435-355 BC), contemporary of Socrates. Aristippus distinguishes two states of the human soul: pleasure as a soft, gentle movement and pain as a rough, impetuous movement of the soul. At the same time, no distinction is made between types of pleasure, each of which in its essence is qualitatively similar to the other. The path to happiness, according to Aristippus, lies in achieving maximum pleasure while avoiding pain. The meaning of life, according to Aristippus, lies precisely in physical satisfaction.

CYRENAICA or Cyrenians, followers of a school founded in the 4th century. student of Socrates, Aristippus of Cyrene. Representative - Gegesy. According to the teachings of this school, the only goal in life is pleasure (hedonic or eudaimonic point of view), which is the highest good; virtue is the ability to dominate one’s pleasure and manage one’s desires. Also, representatives of this school opposed the study of nature. Subsequently, the Cyrene school became the Epicurean school. Hegesius came to negative results. Pleasure is either unattainable or deceptive, and is decisively outweighed by pain.

EPICUREANISM Epicurus describes satisfaction as the principle of a successful life. Epicurus considers satisfaction of desires to be freedom from reluctance and aversion. The goal in this case is not satisfaction itself, but deliverance from suffering and unhappiness: in the philosophy of happiness of Epicurus we are talking about achieving it with the help of ataraxia- liberation from pain and anxiety, not by increased consumption of earthly goods, but through sharpened attention to truly necessary needs, among which Epicurus lists friendship.

LIFE is moderation

CYNICIANS .

(in translation- " dog»)

Founder of the school Antisthenes Athenian, developing the principles of the teacher, began to argue that the best life lies not simply in naturalness, in getting rid of conventions and artificialities, in freedom from possessing unnecessary and useless things, - Antisthenes began to argue that in order to achieve the good one should live “like a dog”, then is combining: - simplicity of life, following one’s own nature, contempt for conventions; - the ability to firmly defend one’s way of life, to stand up for oneself; - loyalty, courage, gratitude

Diogenes from Sinop. He, preaching an ascetic lifestyle, despised luxury, being content with the clothes of a tramp, using a wine barrel for housing, and in his means of expression he was often so straightforward and rude that he earned himself the names “Dog” and “crazy Socrates.”

STOICS

Founder of the school - Zeno of Citium . The goal of man is to live “in harmony with nature.” This is the only way to achieve harmony. Happiness is achievable only if the peace of the soul is not disturbed by any affect that is not considered as an overly intensified attraction. It is by its nature based on an idea that is given false significance. Acting, it becomes pathos, passion. Since a person rarely masters its object completely, he experiences dissatisfaction. Stoic ideal - apathy, freedom from such affects.

Whoever agrees, fate leads him, whoever disagrees, fate drags him. (Seneca)

Heraclitus

he was also called the “Dark” of philosophers, because he expressed his ideas in a florid way, that is, difficult to understand.

In the philosophy of Heraclitus we find the basics dialectics(movements). The philosopher associates “life” with “struggle”, and death with constancy (immutability). the source of “Life” is “struggle” (war, conflict).

Let's remember the story! It was thanks to the fact that Peter the Great chose the strongest army of the Swedes as Russia’s rivals that our country was able to create one of the best armies and the strongest fleet.

And here’s another story: a subordinate disliked her boss so much that she always pedantically read his papers. to criticize him. When she decided to quit, the boss was upset. Why? Hating him, one actually found errors in the text! So who was the winner?

Laboratory work/Practical exercises – not provided

Tasks for independent completion

Based on the philosophical concepts of hedonists, epicureans, cynics, and stoics, write a report (speech) on one of the topics:

— “Socrates and Plato – teachers of European civilization”

- "Socratic Irony"

— “Plato’s Utopian State Project”

— “Ancient Greek Cynics (Diogenes of Sinop). Cynicism in the modern world"

— “The meaning of life: pleasure or moderation?”

1. Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia http://ru.wikipedia.org/wik
2. Reader on the history of philosophy. In 3 volumes. T.1. – M., 2000

Independent work control form

The work is completed electronically and sent for verification indicating the group number, full name. student to teacher by email.

Questions for self-control