§2. Methods of geographical research

I tried not to miss lessons in my favorite subject - geography, and therefore the knowledge that I received at school is still imprinted in my memory. I'll tell you about what methods are used in geographical research, as well as about the most interesting, in my opinion, method.

Directions of Geography

The subject of study of this science is geographic envelope, including natural complexes and their components: soils, mountains, plants, and so on. Does all this physical direction. The socio-economic direction reveals the patterns and conditions under which population distribution and carrying out business activities. Both directions are closely intertwined.

Methods of geographical research

Modern science applies a number of methods, both relatively outdated and modern. Modern ones include:

remote sensing- for example, using aircraft or spacecraft;
geographic information- databases are created where information received from weather stations, satellites and other sources is recorded;
modeling and forecast- forecasting the future state of geosystems.

Traditional methods include:

comparison- identification of common features of phenomena and objects;
observation- obtaining factual data;
statistical- analysis of the received data;
cartographic- studying maps;
historical- study of an object from the moment of its formation.

Aerospace method

Until relatively recently, it was necessary to combine a lot of data to create maps, but everything changed with the beginning of a new era - man began to explore space. The images give an objective idea of the entire surface of our planet and the changes that are taking place on it - each new orbit of the device brings a lot of photos. Images are used to solve a number of problems, both scientific and economic. Scientists are tracking cloud dynamics, studying the state of Arctic ice, forecast the weather. The method is divided into 2 main groups:

visual examination;
filming.

Currently this method is one of the main- in almost every direction of geographical science, data obtained on the basis of pictures of our planet.

Method ( Greek methods) in science is a way to achieve a goal, a course of action; way of cognition, research of natural and social phenomena.

The methods used in economic-geographical research are varied and can be divided into two main groups: general scientific and special scientific (special).

The effectiveness and reliability of economic-geographical research and conclusions formulated by science depends on the completeness of reliance on methodological tools and the correctness of its choice (careful selection of the most effective methods) for each specific study.

General scientific methods:

- description(the oldest method used by geographers);

- cartographic method(this is a graphical way of presenting information about the location and development of natural demographic, socio-economic and other objects in a certain territory). The cartographic method is often not only a means for revealing spatial relationships, but often the final goal of the study. Baransky N.N.: “... every geographical research starts from the map and comes to the map, it begins with the map and ends with the map, the map is the second language of geography.” A map is a mathematically defined, reduced, generalized image of the surface of the Earth, another celestial body or outer space, showing objects located or projected onto them in an accepted system of signs. Types of cartographic ( cartographic) methods:

o map demonstration (the map serves as a demonstration of the results obtained by other methods);

o cartometric (the map is used to obtain initial information and display final results);

o centrographic (the map provides initial information and is used to demonstrate the final result);

- comparative(comparative) method (serves to identify the diversity of forms and types of human activity in natural and socio-economic conditions). The comparative method consists of comparing countries, regions, cities, results of economic activity, development parameters, and demographic characteristics. This method is the basis for forecasting, by analogy, the development of socio-economic processes;

- historical(promotes understanding of territorial objects in space and time, helps to take into account the time factor in the processes of territorial organization of society). The historical method consists in analyzing the genesis of the system (distribution of productive forces): the emergence of the system, formation, cognition, development;

Quantitative methods:

o scoring method(used to assess natural resources and analyze the environmental situation);

o balance method(used in studies of dynamic territorial systems with established flows of resources and products). The balance method is the equalization of quantitative information about various aspects of the development of the phenomenon or process under study. Of particular importance in economic-geographical research is the model intersectoral balance(MOB). The MOB was first developed by Soviet statisticians in 1924-1925. In the 1930s V. Leontiev (USA) proposed his own version of this model, adapted to the conditions of a capitalist economy (input-output model). The main purpose of this model is to substantiate a rational version of the sectoral structure of the regional economy based on optimizing inter-industry flows, minimizing costs and maximizing final products;

o statistical method(operations with statistical information about socio-economic processes in the region). Particularly widely used are methods for calculating indices and sampling, correlation and regression analysis, and the method of expert assessments;

- modeling, incl. mathematical (modeling of migration processes, urban systems, TPK). Modeling is one of the main categories of the theory of knowledge, the essence of which is the study of phenomena, processes or systems of objects by constructing and studying their models. Consequently, during modeling, the object under study is replaced by another auxiliary or artificial system. The patterns and trends identified during the modeling process are then extended to reality;

o material models(layouts, layouts, dummies, etc.);

o mental (ideal models)(sketches, photographs, maps, drawings, graphs);

- econometric method. Econometrics studies the quantitative aspects of economic phenomena and processes by means of mathematical and statistical analysis;

- geographic information method(creation of GIS - a means of collecting, storing, mapping and analyzing various information about the territory based on geographic information technologies);

- expeditionary(collection of primary data, work “in the field”);

- sociological(interviewing, questioning);

- system analysis method(this is a comprehensive study of the structure of the economy, internal relationships and interaction of elements. System analysis is the most developed area of system research in economics. To carry out such an analysis, it is necessary to follow such systematization techniques as:

o classification (grouping of the objects under study into groups that differ from each other mainly in quantitative characteristics, and the qualitative difference reflects the dynamics of the development of objects and their hierarchical order);

o typology(grouping of objects under study into groups (types) that consistently differ from each other in terms of qualitative characteristics);

o concentration(a methodological technique in the study of complex geographical objects, in which the number of elements additional to the main object, associated with it and to varying degrees affecting the completeness of the study, either increases or decreases);

o taxoning(the process of dividing a territory into comparable or hierarchically subordinate taxa);

o zoning(a process of taxonization in which the identified taxa must meet two criteria: the criterion of specificity and the criterion of unity)).

Private scientific methods:

Zoning (economic, socio-economic, environmental);

“Keys” method (primary attention is paid to specific local or regional objects considered as typical or basic in relation to a given territorial system);

Methods of “game of scales” (when the phenomenon under study is analyzed at various spatial-hierarchical levels: global, state, regional, local);

Cycle method (method of energy production cycles, method of resource cycles);

Remote aerospace methods (the Earth or other cosmic bodies are studied at a considerable distance, for which air and spacecraft are used):

o aerial methods (visual observation methods carried out from aircraft; aerial photography, the main type is aerial photography since the 1930s - the main method of topographic survey):

o space methods (visual observations: direct observations of the state of the atmosphere, the earth’s surface, earth objects):

Comparative geographical (geography, unlike most natural sciences, is deprived of its main method - experiment. The method that replaces experiment in geography is comparative geographical. The essence of the method is the study of several territorial systems that exist in reality. In the process of development of these systems there is death (stagnation) of some and development, prosperity of others. Therefore, by studying a group of similar systems, it is possible to identify those whose location provides favorable conditions for their successful development, and discard obviously losing options. That is, it is necessary to study historical experience and identify the reasons. providing positive or negative results in the compared options and choose the optimal one).

Thus, the main methods of geographical research are: the method of system analysis, cartographic, historical, comparative, statistical and others.

Literature:

1. Berlyant A.M. Cartography: textbook for universities. M.: Aspect Press, 2002. 336 p.

2. Druzhinin A.G., Zhitnikov V.G. Geography (economic, social and political): 100 exam answers: Express reference book for university students. M.: ICC “MarT”; Rostov n/d: Publishing house. Center "MarT", 2005. pp. 15-17.

3. Isachenko A.G. Theory and methodology of geographical science: textbook. for students universities M.: Publishing house "Academy", 2004. P. 55-158.

4. Kuzbozhev E.N., Kozyeva I.A., Svetovtseva M.G. Economic geography and regional studies (history, methods, state and prospects for the distribution of productive forces): textbook. village M.: Higher Education, 2009. pp. 44-50.

5. Martynov V.L., Faibusovich E.L. Socio-economic geography of the modern world: a textbook for students of higher educational institutions. M.: Publishing house. Center "Academy", 2010. pp. 19-22.

Correlation analysis is a set of methods based on the mathematical theory of correlation for detecting a correlation between two random characteristics or factors.

Regression analysis is a section of mathematical statistics that combines practical methods for studying the regression relationship between quantities based on statistical data.

Taxon – territorial (geotorial and aquatorial) units that have specific qualifying characteristics. Equal and hierarchically subordinate cells of the territory. Types of taxa: region, area, zone.

The comparative geographical research method is a method of comparing different countries, economic regions, cities, industrial hubs, types of agriculture and other economic and geographical objects, according to their development, specialization, etc. The comparative method replaces experiment in economic geography. It allows us to approach the problem of the typology of the phenomena being studied. The comparative geographical method is used in close connection with the cartographic research method. But approaches to defining objects and subjects of study of geography have changed throughout the history of the development of science. One thing remained in common: most scientists considered the surface of the Earth as the main object of geographical science. At the same time, K. Ritter considered the entire globe to be the object of geography, A. Höttner - countries that are studied from the point of view of the spatial distribution of objects and phenomena, F. Richtofen - the earth's surface, E. Marton - the distribution of physical, biological and phenomena related to human activity, as well as the reasons for this distribution, O. Peschel - the nature of the Earth, etc. Various terms were proposed to define the object of geography: geographical envelope, landscape envelope, geosphere, landscape sphere, biogenosphere, epigeosphere, etc. The greatest recognition received the term "geographical envelope". Prominent Soviet geographer, academician. A. A. Grigoriev believed that the main task of science is to understand the structure of the geographical shell. Another outstanding Soviet geographer, academician. S. V. Kalesnik clarified the definition of the object of geography, including in it the structure of the geographical shell, the laws of its formation, spatial distribution and development. So, geographers have established a specific object of their research. This is a geographical shell, which is a complex formation consisting of interacting main earthly spheres or their elements - lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere. Over the course of a number of years, experience has been accumulated that makes it possible to clarify specialization depending on a number of points that were not previously taken into account. These include, for example, differences from place to place in the supply of water for irrigation, in temperatures (beets need more water, and cotton needs more heat); but along with aspects of the natural order, it is necessary to take into account others, such as: proximity to the city market (which is important for vegetable growing), the presence or absence of labor reserves, labor skills and traditions of the population, the possibility of production linkage with other industries (for example, beet sugar crops with intensive livestock farming), etc. d. In this entire very complex set of different kinds of factors and moments, factors of a natural order always play one role or another, but not as the only ones, but in combination with a number of factors, although also regional, but of a different order - socio-historical or transport-related. market. In all studies on the influence of natural conditions on the production direction of the economy, it is necessary to take into account production technology, which in turn is closely related to the social system.

Research methods (methods) are specific techniques for studying geographical objects and phenomena. Geographic research methods (methods) include: traditional - expeditionary, descriptive, cartographic, comparative geographical, mathematical and statistical, and new methods - experimental, modeling, remote sensing (aerospace), geographic monitoring, geographic forecast, GIS technologies, etc.

The fundamental method of geographical research, the primary source of all geographical knowledge, is the expeditionary method. Much that people learned about the Earth, about its great natural diversity and wealth, they learned during their wanderings and travels, and in modern language - expeditions.

The travelers' recording of what they saw led to the emergence of a method of description. The very name of the science - geography (from the Greek geo - Earth and grapho - describe), proposed by the ancient Greek scientist Eratosthenes, indicates the importance of this method. The description includes not only the collection of information about the object of research, but also its systematization, explanation and theory building. In the 18th century A scientific description began to develop, which included elements of analysis, comparison, and explanation. This method is especially important in works of a regional character, where it has developed from an element-by-element description of countries (nature, population, economy, etc.) to a comprehensive regional characterization. Currently, description is not necessarily associated with recording information on paper. It can be spoken into a voice recorder; the use of electronics allows the description to be transmitted over long distances, stored, and edited. Literary and artistic description is of great importance for memorization and emotional perception (literary works by I.A. Bunin, K.G. Paustovsky, M.M. Prishvin, etc.). The following types of geographical descriptions are distinguished: ascertaining (statement of facts); description of dynamic processes and phenomena; description of cause-and-effect relationships; forward-looking descriptions.

With the emergence of description, a special geographical way of depicting and systematizing knowledge about the territory under study appeared - various “drawings”, diagrams, maps. This is how a very important and necessary cartographic research method arose for geography.

Currently, the cartographic method, in addition to drawing up maps of the study area, includes a visual search and analysis of objects on the map; measuring distances, areas, heights, etc. from a map; comparison of various geographical phenomena and study of their connections and causes; analysis of maps by constructing profiles, etc. The need to describe new countries, territories and compare them with existing, known ones contributed to the development of the comparative research method, which is successfully used to this day. (Which famous geographer successfully used the comparison method? Who was the first to use the historical method in the study of geographical phenomena?)

Geographic information system (geographic information system, GIS) - a system for collecting, storing, analyzing and graphically visualizing spatial (geographic) data and related information about the necessary objects.

The concept of a geographic information system is also used in a narrower sense - as a tool (software product) that allows users to search, analyze and edit both a digital map of the area and additional information about objects.

A geographic information system may include spatial databases (including those controlled by universal DBMSs), raster and vector graphics editors, and various tools for spatial data analysis. They are used in cartography, geology, meteorology, land management, ecology, municipal administration, transport, economics, defense and many other areas. Scientific, technical, technological and applied aspects of the design, creation and use of geographic information systems are studied by geoinformatics.

Data in geographic information systems usually describe real objects, such as roads, buildings, reservoirs, and forests. Real objects can be divided into two abstract categories: discrete (houses, territorial zones) and continuous (relief, precipitation levels, average annual temperature). Vector and raster data are used to represent these two categories of objects.

Research methods in geography today remain the same as before. However, this does not mean that they do not undergo changes. The latest methods of geographical research are emerging, allowing to significantly expand the capabilities of humanity and the boundaries of the unknown. But before considering these innovations, it is necessary to understand the usual classification.

Methods of geographical research are various ways of obtaining information within the science of geography. They are divided into several groups. So, the cartographic method is the use of maps as the main source of information. They can give an idea not only of the relative position of objects, but also of their sizes, the extent of distribution of various phenomena, and a lot of other useful information.

The statistical method says that it is impossible to consider and study peoples, countries, and natural objects without the use of statistical data. That is, it is very important to know what the depth, height, reserves of natural resources of a given territory are, its area, the population of a particular country, its demographic indicators, as well as production indicators.

The historical method implies that our world has developed and everything on the planet has its own rich history. Thus, in order to study modern geography, it is necessary to have knowledge about the history of the development of the Earth itself and the humanity living on it.

The methods of geographical research are continued by the economic-mathematical method. These are nothing more than numbers: calculations of mortality, fertility, population density, resource availability, migration balance, and so on.

The comparative geographical method helps to more fully evaluate and describe the differences and similarities of geographical objects. After all, everything in this world is subject to comparison: less or more, slower or faster, lower or higher, and so on. This method makes it possible to classify geographical objects and predict their changes.

Methods of geographical research cannot be imagined without observations. They can be continuous or periodic, areal and route, remote or stationary, however, they all provide the most important data on the development of geographical objects and the changes that they undergo. It is impossible to study geography while sitting at a table in an office or at a school desk in a classroom; you need to learn to extract useful information from what you can see with your own eyes.

One of the important methods for studying geography has been and remains the method of geographic zoning. This is the identification of economic and natural (physical-geographical) areas. The method of geographic modeling is no less important. We all know from our school days the most striking example of a geographical model - the globe. But modeling can be machine, mathematical and graphical.

Geographic forecast is the ability to predict the consequences that may arise as a result of human development. This method allows us to reduce the negative impact of human activities on the environment, avoid undesirable phenomena, rationally use all kinds of resources, and so on.

Modern methods of geographical research have revealed to the world GIS - geographic information systems, that is, a complex of digital maps, associated software and statistics that give people the opportunity to work with maps directly on a computer. And thanks to the Internet, satellite positioning systems appeared, popularly known as GPS. They consist of ground-based tracking equipment, navigation satellites and various devices that receive information and determine coordinates.

A method is a set of techniques and methods used in science to obtain new knowledge and generalize it into theory. Methods to answer the question of how to achieve the result. They perform a regulatory function, showing what operations need to be performed to further deepen knowledge about the object.

The methods used in geographical science can be divided into 2 large classes: general geographies (permeate the entire system) and specific geographies (used by individual geographies, for example physical or economic). Depending on the use of various principles, a classification trace is distinguished: - by time of origin (traditional, new, newest); - according to the principle of use (general and specific (field research method, methods of systematization and storage of primary material, methods of processing material, forecasting method, method of presenting scientific results and introducing them into practice, methods of constructing scientific theories)); - essentially (empirical (observation, fieldwork, office methods), theoretical (logical, formalized)).